Microelectrode techniques for electroporation

ABSTRACT

A microelectrode for electroporating an individual cell or embryo that includes a substrate with an electrically insulated surface, a first electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate, a second electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate and separated from the first electrode a predetermined distance so as to form a channel, and a liquid medium situated within the channel. The liquid medium is capable of fluidic transport of the cell or embryo through or into the channel and capable of supporting an electric field. The first and second electrodes include surfaces substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate with an edge length that is less than or equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo. The predetermined distance may be 50% to 200% of the diameter of the cell or embryo.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.16/607,689, which is a U.S. National Phase patent application under 35U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2018/029649, filedinternationally on Apr. 26, 2018, which claims the priority benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/490,486, filed Apr. 26, 2017,the disclosures of which is are incorporated herein by reference in itstheir entirety.

BACKGROUND Field

The present disclosure generally relates to permeabilization of cell orembryo membrane by electroporation, and more specifically to amicroelectrode used to control the effects of electroporation across thecell or embryo membrane and sense a degree of permeabilization.

Description of Related Art

Traditionally, electroporation has been realized by applying an electricfield over an entire surface of a cell or embryo, which induces poreformation of the membrane over the whole surface of the cell or embryo.To a certain degree this effect of electroporation has been foundeffective for safely delivering tiny molecules into cells. However, asthe strength of the electric field increases, pores of the membranerupture and merge with adjacent pores to form larger and larger pores.If the pores are induced to become too large, the process is termed“irreversible electroporation,” where the ruptures to the membrane ofthe cell or embryo suffer irreversible damage and cannot be repaired,which results in cellular or embryonic death. This presents challengesfor safely delivering large molecules into cells or embryos usingelectroporation while maintaining healthy cell populations.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The following presents a simplified summary of one or more examples inorder to provide a basic understanding of such examples. This summary isnot an extensive overview of all contemplated examples, and is intendedto neither identify key or critical elements of all examples nordelineate the scope of any or all examples. Its purpose is to presentsome concepts of one or more examples in a simplified form as a preludeto the more detailed description that is presented below.

In accordance with some examples, a microelectrode for electroporatingan individual cell or embryo, the microelectrode comprising: a substratewith an electrically insulated surface; a first electrode adjacent tothe electrically insulated surface of the substrate, wherein the firstelectrode includes a first surface with an edge length that is less thanor equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo, the first surface beingsubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface of thesubstrate; a second electrode adjacent to the electrically insulatedsurface of the substrate and separated from the first electrode apredetermined distance so as to form a channel, wherein the secondelectrode includes a second surface with an edge length that is lessthan or equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo, the second surfacebeing substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface ofthe substrate; and a liquid medium situated within the channel, whereinthe liquid medium is capable of fluidic transport of the cell or embryothrough or into the channel and capable of supporting an electric field.

In some examples the microelectrode further comprises: a secondsubstrate with a second electrically insulated surface situated abovethe channel, wherein the second electrically insulated surface beingsubstantially parallel to the first electrically insulated surface andbeing separated from the first electrically insulated surface a secondpredetermined distance that is 100% to 250% or preferably 50% to 200% ofthe diameter of the cell or the embryo to position the cell or embryowithin the channel between the first electrode and the second electrode.In some examples the microelectrode further comprises: a third electrodeadjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate; and afourth electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated surface of thesubstrate, wherein the third electrode and the fourth electrode aresituated adjacent to the channel or within the channel to accommodateelectrical contact between the third electrode and the fourth electrodeand the cell or embryo.

In accordance with some examples, an electroporation system comprising:a microelectrode for electroporating an individual cell or embryo, themicroelectrode comprising: a substrate with an electrically insulatedsurface; a first electrode adjacent to the electrically insulatedsurface of the substrate, wherein the first electrode includes a firstsurface with an edge length that is less than or equal to a diameter ofthe cell or embryo, the first surface being substantially orthogonal tothe electrically insulated surface of the substrate; a second electrodeadjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate andseparated from the first electrode a predetermined distance so as toform a channel, wherein the second electrode includes a second surfacewith an edge length that is less than or equal to a diameter of the cellor embryo, the second surface being substantially orthogonal to theelectrically insulated surface of the substrate; and a liquid mediumsituated within the channel, wherein the liquid medium is capable offluidic transport of the cell or embryo through or into the channel andcapable of supporting an electric field; and a first signal generatorelectrically coupled to the first electrode and the second electrode,wherein the first signal generator is configured to generate a signalbetween the first electrode and the second electrode that induces auniform electric field with substantially parallel electric field linesbetween the first surface and the second surface.

In some examples the electroporation system further comprises: a switchelectrically coupled to the first electrode and the second electrode,wherein the switch is configured to suppress an electric field betweenthe first surface and the second surface in a first mode and provide anelectric field between the first surface and the second surface in asecond mode. In some examples the electroporation system furthercomprises a signal generator across the two electrodes wherein upon theprompting of a controller or computing system is configured to deliveran electric pulse between the first electrode and the second electrode.In some examples the signal generator is a monostable multivibrator. Insome examples the signal generator is a tool that can be controlled by acontroller or computer and can generate an electric pulse. In any of thedisclosed embodiments, the pulse may be a square wave pulse, anexponential pulse, a sawtooth pulse, or other waveforms. In someexamples the electroporation system further comprises: a second signalgenerator electrically coupled to the third electrode and the fourthelectrode, wherein the second signal generator is configured to inject asignal at the third electrode. In some examples the signal generator iscoupled to the first electrode and second electrode. In some examplesthe first and second electrodes are used to perform both electroporationand sensing. In some examples the electroporation system furthercomprises: a signal extractor electrically coupled to either the thirdelectrode or the fourth electrode, wherein the signal extractor isconfigured to capture a signal response from the injected signal at thethird electrode if coupled to the fourth electrode and at the fourthelectrode if coupled to the third electrode.

In accordance with some examples, a method, comprising: configuring amicroelectrode for electroporating an individual cell or embryo, themicroelectrode comprising: a substrate with an electrically insulatedsurface; a first electrode adjacent to the electrically insulatedsurface of the substrate, wherein the first electrode includes a firstsurface with an edge length that is less than or equal to a diameter ofthe cell or embryo, the first surface being substantially orthogonal tothe electrically insulated surface of the substrate; a second electrodeadjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate andseparated from the first electrode a predetermined distance so as toform a channel, wherein the second electrode includes a second surfacewith an edge length that is less than or equal to a diameter of the cellor embryo, the second surface being substantially orthogonal to theelectrically insulated surface of the substrate; and a liquid mediumsituated within the channel, wherein the liquid medium is capable offluidic transport of the cell or embryo through or into the channel andcapable of supporting an electric field; determining a permeabilitythreshold, wherein the permeability threshold corresponds to a minimumamount of electrical energy applied to the cell or embryo at which cellmembrane permeability is detected; applying a signal between the firstelectrode and the second electrode at the permeability threshold;injecting, at a third electrode, a signal; extracting, at a fourthelectrode, a response to the injected signal, wherein the cell or embryois electrically coupled between the third electrode and the fourthelectrode; and storing the signal response in a non-transitory computerreadable-medium. In some examples the method further comprisesextracting the signal at the third electrode, or at the first electrodeor the second electrode, wherein a switching circuit connects a pulsegenerator (e.g. a monostable multivibrator) to the electrode, a pulse isdelivered by the pulse generator, after which the electrodes switch toconnecting to the sensor module following which sensing signals andsignal extraction are applied and executed.

In some examples the method further comprises: conditioning theextracted signal response. In some examples, determining thepermeability threshold comprises: applying a first test signal betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode at a predeterminedelectrical energy level; injecting, at the third electrode, a secondtest signal while the first test signal is being applied; extracting, atthe fourth electrode, a response to the second test signal; determiningwhether the response to the second test signal is characteristic ofmembrane permeability of the cell or embryo; and in accordance with adetermination that the response to the second test signal ischaracteristic of membrane permeability of the cell or embryo, storingelectrical parameters associated with the predetermined electricalenergy level. In some examples the method further comprises:conditioning the extracted second test signal response. In someexamples, determining the permeability threshold further comprises: inaccordance with a determination that the response to the second testsignal is uncharacteristic of membrane permeability of the cell orembryo: iteratively adjusting the predetermined electrical energy levelof the signal between the first electrode and the second electrode untila determination that the response to the second test signal ischaracteristic of membrane permeability of the cell or embryo; andstoring electrical parameters associated with the adjusted predeterminedelectrical energy level.

Additional embodiments include:

1. A microelectrode for electroporating an individual cell or embryo,the microelectrode comprising:

-   -   a substrate with an electrically insulated surface;    -   a first electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated surface        of the substrate, wherein the first electrode includes a first        surface with an edge length that is less than or equal to a        diameter of the cell or embryo, the first surface being        substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface        of the substrate;    -   a second electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated        surface of the substrate and separated from the first electrode        a predetermined distance so as to form a channel, wherein the        second electrode includes a second surface with an edge length        that is less than or equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo,        the second surface being substantially orthogonal to the        electrically insulated surface of the substrate; and    -   a liquid medium situated within the channel, wherein the liquid        medium is capable of fluidic transport of the cell or embryo        through or into the channel and capable of supporting an        electric field.        2. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the first surface and        the second surface are not parallel.        3. The microelectrode of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein one or both        of the first surface and the second surface are curved.        4. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-3, wherein one or        both of the first surface and the second surface are        semi-circular or semi-elliptical.        5. The microelectrode of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein one or both        of the first surface and the second surface are rectangular,        triangular, or trapezoidal.        6. The microelectrode of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the first        electrode includes a third surface adjacent to first surface and        the electrically insulated surface of the substrate, and wherein        the second electrode includes a fourth surface adjacent to first        surface.        7. The microelectrode of claim 6, wherein the first surface and        the third surface form a polyhedron situated on a        cross-sectional end of the first electrode.        8. The microelectrode of claim 6 or claim 7, wherein the second        surface and the fourth surface form a polyhedron situated on a        cross-sectional end of the second electrode.        9. The microelectrode of claim 7, wherein the polyhedron formed        on the cross-sectional end of the first electrode forms a        triangular prism, a quadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, a        septaheron, or an octahedron.        10. The microelectrode of claim 7 or claim 9, wherein the        polyhedron formed on the cross-sectional end of the second        electrode forms a triangular prism, a quadrahedron, a        pentahedron, a hexahedron, a septaheron, or an octahedron.        11. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the second surface        area is substantially parallel to the first surface.        12. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 0.02% to 75.0% of the diameter of the cell        or embryo.        13. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 100 nm to 9 mm.        14. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 1 μm to 1 mm.        15. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 5 μm to 100 μm.        16. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian embryos and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 160 μm.        17. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian embryos and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 120 μm.        18. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 16,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1 μm to 33 mm.        19. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 17,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 80 μm to 200 μm.        20. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of insect embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 16.5 mm.        21. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of insect embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 0.18 mm to 3 mm.        22. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 20,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 0.09 mm to 33 mm.        23. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 21,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 0.18 mm to 3.75 mm.        24. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of insect embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 0.5 mm to 16.5 mm.        25. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of insect embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 16.5 mm.        26. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 24,        wherein the predetermined distance ranges from 1 μm to 10 μm.        27. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 25,        wherein the predetermined distance ranges from 0.5 mm to 20.63        mm.        28. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of amphibian embryo cells        and the edge length of the substrate of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 100 nm to 2 mm.        29. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of amphibian embryo cells        and the edge length of the substrate of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 1 mm to 2 mm.        30. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 28,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 0.5 mm to 4 mm.        31. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 29,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1 mm to 2.5 mm.        32. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of fish embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 9 mm.        33. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of fish embryo cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 0.7 mm to 9 mm.        34. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 32,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 0.45 mm to 18 mm.        35. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 33,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 0.7 mm to 11.25 mm.        36. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of plant protoplasts and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 40 μm.        37. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of plant protoplasts and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 10 μm1 to 40 μm.        38. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 36,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 80 μm.        39. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 37,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 50 μm.        40. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of pollen and the edge length of one or both        of the first surface and the second surface ranges from 100 nm        to 120 μm.        41. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of pollen and the edge length of one or both        of the first surface and the second surface ranges from 6 μm to        120 μm.        42. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 40,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 3 μm to 240 μm.        43. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 41,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 6 μm to 150 μm.        44. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of fungi protoplast and the edge length of        one or both of the first surface and the second surface ranges        from 100 nm to 5 μm.        45. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of fungi protoplast and the edge length of        one or both of the first surface and the second surface ranges        from 2 μm to 5 μm.        46. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 44,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1 μm to 10 μm.        47. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 45,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 2 μm to 6.5 μm.        48. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of yeast and the edge        length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 100 nm to 4 μm.        49. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of yeast and the edge        length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 3 μm to 4 μm.        50. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 48,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1.5 μm to 8 μm.        51. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 49,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 3 μm to 5 μm.        52. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian immune cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 80 μm.        53. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian immune cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 5 μm to 80 μm.        54. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 52,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 2.5 μm to 160 μm.        55. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 53,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 100 μm.        56. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian connective        tissue cells and the edge length of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 100 nm to 20 μm.        57. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian connective        tissue cells and the edge length of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 2 μm to 20 μm.        58. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 56,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1 μm to 40 μm.        59. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 57,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 2 μm to 25 μm.        60. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian endothelial        cells and the edge length of one or both of the first surface        and the second surface ranges from 100 nm to 20 μm.        61. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian endothelial        cells and the edge length of one or both of the first surface        and the second surface ranges from 10 μm to 20 μm.        62. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 60,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 40 μm.        63. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 61,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 25 μm.        64. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian epithelial        cells and the edge length of one or both of the first surface        and the second surface ranges from 100 nm to 120 μm.        65. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian epithelial        cells and the edge length of one or both of the first surface        and the second surface ranges from 10 μm to 120 μm.        66. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 64,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 240 μm.        67. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 65,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 150 μm.        68. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian muscle cells        and the edge length of the substrate of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 200 nm to 40 mm.        69. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian muscle cells        and the edge length of the substrate of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 1 mm to 40 mm.        70. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 68,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 80 mm.        71. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 69,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 1 mm to 50 mm.        72. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian muscle cells        and the edge length of the substrate of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 10 μm to 100 μm.        73. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 68,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 125 mm.        74. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian mesenchymal        stem cells and the edge length of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 100 nm to 30 μm.        75. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian mesenchymal        stem cells and the edge length of one or both of the first        surface and the second surface ranges from 20 μm to 30 μm.        76. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 74,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 60 μm.        77. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 75,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 20 μm to 37.5 μm.        78. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of mammalian embryonic stem cells and the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 100 nm to 15 μm.        79. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the microelectrode is        for electroporation of mammalian embryonic stem cells and the        edge length of one or both of the first surface and the second        surface ranges from 10 μm to 15 μm.        80. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 78,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 30 μm.        81. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 79,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 18.75 μm.        82. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian IPSC cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 30 μm.        83. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian IPSC cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 10 μm to 30 μm.        84. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 82,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 60 μm.        85. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 83,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 20 μm to 37.5 μm.        86. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian CHO cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 15 μm.        87. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian CHO cells and        the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 10 μm to 15 μm.        88. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 86,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 30 μm.        89. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 87,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 18.75 μm.        90. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian HeLA cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 20 μm.        91. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian HeLA cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 10 μm to 20 μm.        92. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 90,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 40 μm.        93. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 91,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 25 μm.        94. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian HEK293 cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 100 nm to 15 μm.        95. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the        microelectrode is for electroporation of mammalian HEK293 cells        and the edge length of one or both of the first surface and the        second surface ranges from 10 μm to 15 μm.        96. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 94,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to 30 μm.        97. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11 or claim 95,        where the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μm to 18.75 μm.        98. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-16 and 94, wherein        the predetermined distance ranges from 0.5 times the diameter of        the cell to 2.0 times the diameter of the cell or embryo.        99. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-16 and 94, wherein        the predetermined distance ranges from 0.75 times the diameter        of the cell to 1.5 times the diameter of the cell or embryo.        100. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-98, wherein one        or both of the first surface and the second surface are        rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, semi-circular, or        semi-elliptical.        101. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-100, wherein one        or both of the first electrode and the second electrode are        deposited on the electrically insulated surface using techniques        selected from the group consisting of physical vapor deposition,        chemical vapor deposition, electroplating, and/or wet etching.        102. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-101, wherein one        or both of the first electrode and the second electrode include        a hydrophilic surface coating.        103. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-102, wherein one        or both of the first electrode and the second electrode are made        from a material selected from the group consisting of        polysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium,        nichrome, silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold,        silver, palladium, TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride,        vanadium, permalloy, graphene, indium tin oxide, tin, ruthenium,        ruthenium oxide, rhodium, zirconium, TiNi, Al—Si—Cu, and cobalt.        104. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-103, wherein one        or both of the first electrode and the second electrode are made        from a conductive alloy.        105. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-104, wherein the        channel is configured to isolate the cell or embryo between the        first surface and the second surface.        106. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-105, wherein the        substrate includes one or more fluidic vents situated within the        electrically insulated surface of the substrate between the        first surface and the second surface.        107. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-105, wherein the        substrate includes one or more fluidic vents situated within a        second electrically insulated surface of the substrate between        the first surface and the second surface, wherein the second        electrically insulated surface of the substrate is orthogonal to        both the electrically insulated surface of the substrate and the        first surface.        108. The microelectrode of claim 106 or claim 107, wherein the        one or more fluidic vents are smaller than the diameter of the        cell or embryo.        109. The microelectrode of any one of claims 106-108, wherein        the liquid medium flows through the one or more vents and        positions the cell or embryo within the channel between the        first electrode and the second electrode.        110. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-109, further        comprising a second substrate with a second electrically        insulated surface situated above the channel, wherein the second        electrically insulated surface is substantially parallel to the        first electrically insulated surface and is separated from the        first electrically insulated surface a second predetermined        distance that is 100% to 250%, 50% to 200%, 50% to less than        100%, or 10% to 50% of the diameter of the cell or the embryo to        position the cell or embryo within the channel between the first        electrode and the second electrode.        111. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-109, further        comprising:    -   a third electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated surface        of the substrate; and    -   a fourth electrode adjacent to the electrically insulated        surface of the substrate, wherein the third electrode and the        fourth electrode are situated adjacent to the channel or within        the channel to accommodate electrical contact between the third        electrode and the fourth electrode and the cell or embryo.        112. The microelectrode of claim 111, wherein cross-sections of        one or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode are        rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, semi-circular, or        semi-elliptical.        113. The microelectrode of claim 111 or claim 112, wherein an        edge length of one or both of the third electrode and the fourth        electrode is less than the edge length of the first surface or        the second surface.        114. The microelectrode of any one of claims 111-113, wherein an        edge length of one or both of the third electrode and the fourth        electrode ranges from 100 nm to 3.3 μm.        115. The microelectrode of any one of claims 111-114, wherein        one or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode        include a hydrophilic surface coating.        116. The microelectrode of any one of claims 111-115, wherein        one or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode are        made from a material selected from the group consisting of        polysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium,        nichrome, silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold,        silver, palladium, TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride,        vanadium, permalloy (NiFe), graphene, indium tin oxide, tin,        ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, rhodium, zirconium, TiNi, Al—Si—Cu,        and cobalt.        117. The microelectrode of any one of claims 111-116, wherein        one or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode are        made from a conductive alloy.        118. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-114, wherein the        liquid medium includes a polynucleotide with a concentration        ranging between 1 ng/μL to 10 mg/μL.        119. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-114, wherein the        liquid medium includes a polynucleotide with a concentration        ranging between 1 ng/μL to 10 μg/μL.        120. The microelectrode of claim 118, wherein the polynucleotide        is a polyribonucleotide.        121. The microelectrode of claim 120, wherein the        polyribonucleotide is in a complex with a polypeptide.        122. The microelectrode of claim 120, wherein the        polyribonucleotide is in a polypeptide.        123. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-118, wherein the        substrate is glass or silicon.        124. The microelectrode of claim 123, wherein the glass is        selected from the group consisting of Pyrex 7740, BK7 glass,        Borofloat 33, Corning Eagle glass, D263, Gorilla glass, and        soda-lime glass.        125. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is fused silica quartz or single crystal quartz.        126. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is silicon-on-insulator.        127. The microelectrode of claim 126, wherein the        silicon-on-insulator is selected from the group consisting of        silicon nitride on silicon and silicon-oxide on silicon.        128. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is germanium or germanium-on-insulator.        129. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is zinc oxide.        130. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is a polymer.        131. The microelectrode of claim 130, wherein the polymer is        selected from the group consisting of Cast acrylic, ABS, nylon,        polyethylene, cyclic olefin copolymer and polymer, acetal,        polycarbonate, PETG, polyimide, FEP, PTFE, Polystyrene,        polypropylene, silicone, PVC, polyurethane, PMMA, and PDMS.        132. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is polydimethylsiloxane.        133. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is low-temperature co-fired ceramic.        134. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-121, wherein the        substrate is a positive or negative photoresist.        135. A microfluidic chip for electroporation of multiple        individual cells or embryos, comprising two or more of the        microelectrodes of any one of claims 1-123, wherein at least two        of the two or more of the microelectrodes are fluidly coupled by        a transport channel.        136. A microfluidic array for electroporation of multiple        individual cells or embryos, comprising two or more of the        microelectrodes of any one of claims 1-123.        137. An electroporation system comprising:    -   a microelectrode of any one of claims 1-123; and    -   a first signal generator electrically coupled to the first        electrode and the second electrode, wherein the first signal        generator is configured to generate a signal between the first        electrode and the second electrode that induces a uniform        electric field with substantially parallel electric field lines        between the first surface and the second surface, and wherein a        sensing signal is received by either the first electrode or the        second electrode.        138. The electroporation system of claim 137, wherein the        generated signal is a sinusoid waveform or a non-sinusoidal        waveform.        139. The electroporation system of claim 138, wherein the        non-sinusoidal waveform is an exponential waveform, a square        waveform, a triangular waveform, or a saw-tooth waveform.        140. The system of any one of claims 137-139, wherein the        generated signal has a frequency between 1 Hz to 100 GHz.        141. The system of any one of claims 137-139, wherein the        generated signal has a frequency between 1 Hz to 1 kHz 100 GHz.        142. The system of any one of claims 137-140, wherein the        generated signal has a duty cycle of 50%.        143. The electroporation system of any one of claims 137-140,        wherein the induced electric field ranges between 10 V/cm to 5        kV/cm.        144. The electroporation system of any one of claims 137-140,        wherein the induced electric field ranges between 100 V/cm to 4        kV/cm.        145. The electroporation system of any one of claims 137-143,        further comprising:    -   a switch electrically coupled to the first electrode and the        second electrode, wherein the switch is configured to suppress        an electric field between the first surface and the second        surface in a first mode and provide an electric field between        the first surface and the second surface in a second mode.        146. The electroporation system of claim 145, wherein the switch        is configured to toggle between the first mode and the second        mode at predetermined periodicity.        147. The electroporation system of claim 146, wherein the        predetermined periodicity ranges from 100 μs to 50 ms.        148. The electroporation system of claim 145, wherein the switch        includes a bi-directional multiplexer coupled to a        microcontroller or a computer.        149. The electroporation system of claim 145, wherein the switch        is a switching circuit.        150. The electroporation system of claim 149, wherein the        switching circuit includes the first signal generator to form a        mono-stable multi-vibrator.        151. The electroporation system any one of claims 137-147,        further comprising:    -   a second signal generator electrically coupled to the third        electrode and the fourth electrode, wherein the second signal        generator is configured to inject a signal at any of the first,        second, third, or fourth electrodes.        152. The electroporation system of claim 151, further        comprising:    -   a signal extractor electrically coupled to the fourth electrode,        wherein the signal extractor is configured to capture a signal        response from the injected signal at any of the first, second,        third, or fourth electrodes.        153. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        response at the fourth electrode in relation to the injected        signal at any of the first, second, third, or fourth electrodes        is proportional to the impedance of the cell or embryo.        154. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        extractor is an analog-to-digital converter.        155. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        extractor is a potentiostat or a galvanostat.        156. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        extractor is a differential impedance matching network.        157. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        extractor is an AC coupled bridge network.        158. The electroporation system of claim 152, wherein the signal        extractor is an auto-balancing bridge network.        159. A method, comprising:    -   configuring the microelectrode of any one of claims 1-134;    -   determining a permeability threshold, wherein the permeability        threshold corresponds to a minimum amount of electrical energy        applied to the cell or embryo at which cell membrane        permeability is detected;    -   applying a signal between the first electrode and the second        electrode at the permeability threshold;    -   injecting, at a third electrode, a signal,    -   extracting, at a fourth electrode, a response to the injected        signal, wherein the cell or embryo is electrically coupled        between the third electrode and the fourth electrode; and    -   storing the signal response in a non-transitory computer        readable-medium.        160. The method of claim 159, further comprises: conditioning        the extracted signal response.        161. The method of claim 160, wherein the conditioning includes        one or more low pass filters.        162. The method of claim 160 or claim 161, wherein the        conditioning includes amplifying the extracted signal response.        163. The method of any one of claims 159-162, wherein the        injected signal includes one or more frequencies.        164. The method of any one of claims 159-163, wherein        determining the permeability threshold comprises:    -   applying a first test signal between the first electrode and the        second electrode at a predetermined electrical energy level;    -   injecting, at the third electrode, a second test signal while        the first test signal is being applied;    -   extracting, at the fourth electrode, a response to the second        test signal;    -   determining whether the response to the second test signal is        characteristic of membrane permeability of the cell or embryo;        and    -   in accordance with a determination that the response to the        second test signal is characteristic of membrane permeability of        the cell or embryo, storing electrical parameters associated        with the predetermined electrical energy level.        165. The method of claim 164 further comprises: conditioning the        extracted second test signal response.        166. The method of claim 165, wherein the conditioning includes        one or more low pass filters.        167. The method of claim 164 or claim 165, wherein the        conditioning includes amplifying the extracted signal response.        168. The method of any one of claims 164-167, wherein        determining the permeability threshold further comprises:    -   in accordance with a determination that the response to the        second test signal is uncharacteristic of membrane permeability        of the cell or embryo:        -   iteratively adjusting the predetermined electrical energy            level of the signal between the first electrode and the            second electrode until a determination that the response to            the second test signal is characteristic of membrane            permeability of the cell or embryo; and        -   storing electrical parameters associated with the adjusted            predetermined electrical energy level.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

For a better understanding of the various described examples, referenceshould be made to the description below, in conjunction with thefollowing figures in which like reference numerals refer tocorresponding parts throughout the figures.

FIG. 1A illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe withelectroporation electrodes.

FIG. 1B illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe withheight-reduced electroporation electrodes.

FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe with planarelectroporation electrodes situated on a substrate.

FIG. 2B illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe with a portion ofthe substrate situated between electroporation electrodes.

FIG. 3A illustrates an ISO view of exemplary microelectrode probe cellwith microfluidic vents situated on a substrate between electroporationelectrodes.

FIG. 3B illustrates an ISO view of an exemplary microelectrode probewith a cell or embryo drawn to the microfluidic vents situated on asubstrate between electroporation electrodes.

FIG. 4A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a microelectrode probecell.

FIG. 4B illustrates a fluidic vent comprising a plurality of identicalsmaller vents in parallel.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a microelectrode probearray.

FIG. 6 is a conceptual data flow diagram illustrating the data flowbetween different hardware of an electroporation system.

FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary process for electroporation using amicroelectrode probe in the microelectrode array.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The detailed description set forth below in connection with the appendeddrawings is intended as a description of various configurations and isnot intended to represent the only configurations in which the conceptsdescribed herein can be practiced. The detailed description includesspecific details for the purpose of providing a thorough understandingof various concepts. However, it will be apparent to those skilled inthe art that these concepts can be practiced without these specificdetails. In some instances, well-known structures and components areshown in block diagram form in order to avoid obscuring such concepts.

Examples of a microelectrode probe, microelectrode probe array, andmicroelectrode probe system for electroporation will now be presentedwith reference to various electronic devices and methods. Theseelectronic devices and methods will be described in the followingdetailed description and illustrated in the accompanying drawing byvarious blocks, components, circuits, steps, processes, algorithms, etc.(collectively referred to as “elements”). These elements can beimplemented using electronic hardware, computer software, or anycombination thereof. Whether such elements are implemented as hardwareor software depends upon the particular application and designconstraints imposed on the overall system.

By way of example, an element, or any portion of an element, or anycombination of elements of the various electronic devices of theelectroporation system can be implemented using one or more processors.Examples of processors include microprocessors, microcontrollers,graphics processing units (GPUs), central processing units (CPUs),application processors, digital signal processors (DSPs), reducedinstruction set computing (RISC) processors, systems on a chip (SoC),baseband processors, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs),programmable logic devices (PLDs), state machines, gated logic, discretehardware circuits, and other suitable hardware configured to perform thevarious functionalities described throughout this disclosure. One ormore processors in the processing system can execute software. Softwareshall be construed broadly to mean instructions, instruction sets, code,code segments, program code, programs, subprograms, software components,applications, software applications, software packages, routines,subroutines, objects, executables, threads of execution, procedures,functions, etc., whether referred to as software, firmware, middleware,microcode, hardware description language, or otherwise.

Accordingly, in one or more examples, the functions described for theelectroporation system can be implemented in hardware, software, or anycombination thereof. If implemented in software, the functions can bestored on or encoded as one or more instructions or code on acomputer-readable medium. Computer-readable media can include transitoryor non-transitory computer storage media for carrying or havingcomputer-executable instructions or data structures stored thereon. Bothtransitory and non-transitory storage media can be any available mediathat can be accessed by a computer as part of the processing system. Byway of example, and not limitation, such computer-readable media caninclude a random-access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), anelectrically erasable programmable ROM (EEPROM), optical disk storage,magnetic disk storage, other magnetic storage devices, combinations ofthe aforementioned types of computer-readable media, or any other mediumthat can be used to store computer-executable code in the form ofinstructions or data structures accessible by a computer. Further, wheninformation is transferred or provided over a network or anothercommunications connection (either hardwired, wireless, or combinationthereof) to a computer, the computer or processing system properlydetermines the connection as a transitory or non-transitorycomputer-readable medium, depending on the particular medium. Thus, anysuch connection is properly termed a computer-readable medium.Combinations of the above should also be included within the scope ofthe computer-readable media. Non-transitory computer-readable mediaexclude signals per se and the air interface.

The present disclosure describes a microelectrode probe that traps acell or embryo between electroporation electrodes. The microelectrodeprobe includes electroporation electrodes that are shorter than thediameter of the cell or embryo and are separated from each other at apredetermined distance. This predetermined distance may be strictlygreater than the diameter of the cell or embryo so that the cell orembryo may fit between the electrodes. Alternatively, the predetermineddistance may be 50% to 200% of the diameter of the cell or embryo;predetermined distances less than 100% of the diameter squeezes the cellor embryo into the trap, which has the benefit of holding the cell orembryo in a fixed position throughout the process. Duringelectroporation a voltage (e.g., pulse or signal) is applied to theelectroporation electrodes to produce a uniform electric field betweenthe electroporation electrodes, which induces pore formation across themembrane of the cell or embryo. Electroporation techniques that useelectroporation electrodes shorter than the diameter of the cell orembryo unexpectedly increased the amount of electric field strength thata cell or embryo can safely withstand before suffering permanent damage.Elevated electric field strengths induce larger pores on the membrane ofthe cell or embryo and the ability of a microelectrode probe to safelyinduce larger pore formation facilitates therapies that deliver largemolecules into cells or embryos. To illustrate this phenomenon, Table 1below shows side-by-side comparisons between the disclosed method(“Ravata”) and the standard method (“Normal EP”) for eight uniqueClustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)gene-knockouts. The results indicate that embryos used with amicroelectrode array described herein were safely exposed to the sameelectric field for two-and-a-half to five times as long as they werewith Normal EP without loss in survival rates and with an increase ingene-editing efficiency. Performing Normal EP at higher durations than18 ms, the survival rate of embryos significantly plummeted almostimmediately.

TABLE 1 Ravata Total Normal EP Ravata Normal EP Electric Embryo FieldTotal Field Outcome Outcome Field Duration Duration (0 = Fail, (0 =Fail, [V/cm] [ms] [ms] 1 = Success) 1 = Success) 300 45 18 1 1 300 90 181 0 300 90 18 1 0 300 45 18 1 1 300 45 18 1 0 300 90 18 1 0 300 90 18 00 300 90 18 1 1

FIG. 1A illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe 100 withelectroporation electrodes. As depicted in FIG. 1A, a firstelectroporation electrode 102 and a second electroporation electrode 104are situated on a substrate 106. The substrate 106 has an electricallyinsulated surface that prevents the first electroporation electrode 102from electrically shorting with the second electroporation electrode104. In some examples, the substrate 106 is glass or silicon. In someinstances, the glass is selected from the group consisting of Pyrex7740, BK7 glass, Borofloat 33, Corning Eagle glass, D263, Gorilla glass,and soda-lime glass. In some examples, the substrate 106 is fused silicaquartz or single crystal quartz. In some examples, the substrate 106 issilicon-on-insulator (SOI). In some instances, the silicon-on-insulator(SOI) is selected from the group consisting of silicon nitride onsilicon and silicon-oxide on silicon. In some examples, the substrate106 is germanium or germanium-on-insulator. In some examples, thesubstrate 106 is zinc oxide. In some examples, the substrate 106 is apolymer. In some instances, the polymer is selected from the groupconsisting of Cast acrylic, ABS, nylon, polyethylene, cyclic olefincopolymer and polymer, acetal, polycarbonate, PETG, polyimide, FEP,PTFE, Polystyrene, polypropylene, silicone, PVC, polyurethane, PMMA, andPDMS. In some examples, the substrate 106 is polydimethylsiloxane. Insome examples, the substrate 106 is a low-temperature co-fired ceramic.In some examples, the substrate 106 is a positive or negativephotoresist.

The first electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 each have a surface that is substantially orthogonal tothe electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106. In some examples, one or both of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 are deposited on the electrically insulated surface using techniquessuch as physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition,electroplating, and/or wet etching. In some examples, one or both of thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 may be deposited; deposited then grown; deposited thenetched; or deposited then grown then etched on the insulated surface. Insome examples, one or both of the first electroporation electrode 102and the second electroporation electrode 104 include a hydrophilicsurface coating. In some examples, one or both of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 are made from a material selected from the group consisting ofpolysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium, nichrome,silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold, silver, palladium,TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride, vanadium, permalloy, graphene,indium tin oxide, tin, ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, rhodium, zirconium,TiNi, Al—Si—Cu, and cobalt. In some examples, one or both of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 are made from a conductive alloy.

The second electroporation electrode 104 is separated from the firstelectroporation electrode 102 at the surface that is substantiallyorthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 a predetermined distance so as to form achannel 140. In general, the channel 140 is configured to isolate thecell or embryo 120 between the one or both surfaces (e.g., the firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that are substantiallyorthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106. In some examples, the predetermineddistance between the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 is larger than the diameter of cell orembryo 120. In some examples, the predetermined distance between thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 is 50% to 200%, 50% to less than 100%, or even 10% to 50%of the diameter of the cell or embryo. In some examples, the one or bothsurfaces (e.g., the first surface and the second surface) of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 that are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 are rectangular,triangular, trapezoidal, semi-circular, or semi-elliptical.

As depicted in FIG. 1A, the substrate 106 includes a fluidic vent 108situated within the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 between the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104. The vent 108facilitates positioning of the cell or embryo 120 within the channel 140as a liquid medium 130 situated within the channel 140 can flow throughthe vent 108 so as to draw the cell or embryo 120 towards the channel140. The vent 108 further facilitates a suction to the cell or embryo120 once positioned (e.g., in contact with the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106). In general, thesubstrate 106 includes one or more fluidic vents 108 situated within theelectrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate106 between the one or both surfaces (e.g., the first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that are substantially orthogonalto the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106.

It should be appreciated that the liquid medium 130 is capable offluidic transport of the cell or embryo 120 through or into the channel.In some examples, the liquid medium 130 includes a polynucleotide with aconcentration ranging between 1 ng/μL to 10 μg/μL. In some examples, thepolynucleotide concentration ranges between 1 ng/μL to 10 mg/μL,preferably between 1 ng/μL to 100 μg/μL or, for higher efficiency,between 100 μg/μL to 1 mg/μL. The concentration of CRISPR RNP(ribonucleic protein or pre-complexed Cas9) used for bothelectroporation methods performed to produce Tables 1 and 2 was 10ug/uL. In some instances, the polynucleotide is a polyribonucleotide. Insome instances, the polyribonucleotide is in a complex with apolypeptide. In some instances, the polyribonucleotide is in anon-complex with a polypeptide. In addition, it should be appreciatedthat the liquid medium 130 is capable of supporting an electric fieldand therefore does not electrically short the first electroporationelectrode 102 to the second electroporation electrode 104.

In the configuration depicted in FIG. 1A, an edge length of each of thesubstantially orthogonal surface of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 isgreater than a diameter of the cell or embryo 120. In thisconfiguration, a voltage potential applied across the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 induces a uniform electric field with electric field lines 110. Asdepicted in FIG. 1A, the electric field lines 110 in the liquid medium130 are relatively orthogonal to the substantially orthogonal surfacesof the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104. As the field lines 110 approach the cellor embryo 120, the electric field lines 110 are perturbed so as to arcin a direction conducive to the change in permittivity between the cellor embryo 120 (e.g., ε_(cell/embryo)) and the liquid medium 130 (e.g.,ε_(liquid)). Consequently, the electric field lines 110 remain uniformalbeit slightly contouring across the cell or embryo 120.

As depicted in FIG. 1A, the entire cell or embryo 120 is enveloped inthe relatively uniform electric field since the edge length of each ofthe substantially orthogonal surfaces of the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extendsin a direction (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to theelectrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate106 is greater than a diameter of the cell or embryo 120. This meansthat the applied electric field induces pore 122 formation of themembrane across the entire cell or embryo 120. As such, the number ofinduced pores 122 across the membrane of the cell or embryo 120 isindependent of the position of the cell or embryo with respect to theelectrodes (e.g., first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104).

The configuration in FIG. 1A creates pores on the entire membrane andthus has a lower threshold for cell survival than the configuration inFIG. 1B which concentrates pores to a specific region of the cell'smembrane. The reason is that the number of adjacent pores 122 in FIG. 1Aof the membrane that rupture to form larger and larger pores 122 spansacross the entire cell or membrane, which exceeds what the cell orembryo 120 is capable of repairing. Table 2 below lists the results ofexperiments showcasing the effect of greater electric fields and longerdurations.

TABLE 2 Normal Ravata Normal EP Normal Ravata Total EP Total Ravata EPElectric Field Electric Field Viability Viability Field Duration FieldDuration Outcome Outcome [V/cm] [ms] [V/cm] [ms] [0 or 1] [0 or 1] 35060 300 18 0 1 350 60 300 18 1 1 400 63 300 18 1 1 435 105 300 18 1 0

FIG. 1B illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe 150 withheight-reduced electroporation electrodes. As depicted in FIG. 1B, afirst electroporation electrode 102 and a second electroporationelectrode 104 are situated on a substrate 106. The substrate 106 has anelectrically insulated surface that prevents the first electroporationelectrode 102 from electrically shorting with the second electroporationelectrode 104.

The first electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 each have a surface that is substantially orthogonal tothe electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106. The second electroporation electrode 104 is separatedfrom the first electroporation electrode 102 at a predetermined distanceso as to form a channel 140. In some examples, the predetermineddistance between the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 is larger than the diameter of cell orembryo 120. In some examples, the predetermined distance between thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 is 50% to 200% of the diameter of the cell or embryo.

As depicted in FIG. 1B, the substrate 106 includes a fluidic vent 108situated within the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 between the substantially orthogonalsurfaces of the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104. The vent 108 facilitates positioning ofthe cell or embryo within the channel 140 as a liquid medium 130situated within the channel 140 can flow through the vent so as to drawthe cell or embryo 120 towards the channel 140. The vent 108 furtherfacilitates a suction to the cell or embryo 120 once positioned (e.g.,in contact with the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106). It should be appreciated that the liquidmedium 130 is capable of fluidic transport of the cell or embryo 120through or into the channel. In some examples, the liquid medium 130includes a polynucleotide with a concentration ranging between 1 ng/μLto 10 μg/μL. In some examples, the polynucleotide concentration rangesbetween 1 ng/μL to 10 mg/μL, preferably between 1 ng/μL to 100 μg/μL or,for higher efficiency, between 100 μg/μL to 1 mg/μL. In some instances,the polynucleotide is a polyribonucleotide. In some instances, thepolyribonucleotide is in a complex with a polypeptide. In someinstances, the polyribonucleotide is in a polypeptide. It should also beappreciated that the liquid medium 130 is capable of supporting anelectric field and therefore does not electrically short the firstelectroporation electrode 102 to the second electroporation electrode104.

In the configuration depicted in FIG. 1B, an edge length of each of thesubstantially orthogonal surfaces of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 is lessthan or equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo 120. In thisconfiguration, a voltage potential applied across the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 induces a relatively uniform electric field with electric fieldlines 110 within the cell or embryo 120. As depicted in FIG. 1B, theelectric field lines 110 are perturbed slightly so as to arc in adirection conducive to the change in permittivity between the cell orembryo 120 (e.g., ε_(cell/embryo)) and the liquid medium 130 (e.g.,ε_(liquid)).

As depicted in FIG. 1B, only a portion of the cell or embryo 120 issubjected to the relatively uniform electric field. As such, the appliedelectric field induces pore 122 formation of the membrane andconcentrates it to a portion of the cell or embryo 120. As such, thenumber of induced pores 122 across the membrane of the cell or embryo120 correlates with both the position of the cell or embryo 120 withrespect to the electrodes (e.g., first electroporation electrode 102 andthe second electroporation electrode 104) and the strength of theelectric field (e.g., concentration of electric field lines 110).

The induced pores 122 span only a portion of the cell or embryo 120. Assuch, there remain different portions of the cell or embryo 120 that areundamaged upon completion of electroporation. This means that afterelectroporation, the cell or embryo 120 can forgo repairing the portionnot subject to the electric field and instead focus on repairing theportion subjected to electroporation. The tests shown in Tables 1 and 2indicate that the cell or embryo 120 can withstand larger induced pores122 under electroporation for the induced pores 122 that span only aportion of the membrane of the cell or embryo 120 compared to inducedpores 122 that span the entire membrane of the cell or embryo 120.

Tests revealed that the administration of an electric field strengthgreater than o325 V/cm for 18 ms total, or for total durations greaterthan 18 ms at 300V/cm, is fatal to embryos using the configurationsimilar to that depicted in FIG. 1A. Surprisingly, under the samecondition but adapting the configuration to resemble FIG. 1B (e.g., onlyreducing edge lengths of each of the substantially orthogonal surfacesof the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 to 20 μm), embryos showeda survival rate of 66%. The tests were conducted for embryos that were80 μm in diameter and subjected to an electric field of 600V/cm for 5ms, 10 ms, 15 ms, and 20 ms. The tests indicate that localized electricfields provided over a portion of the cell or embryo 120, as depicted inFIG. 1B, induce pore formation only over part of the cell or embryo,thereby providing for the cell or embryo 120 to withstand largerelectric fields and to recover from large pore formation. By comparison,tests have experimentally determined that a cell or embryo 120 subjectto an electric field using the configuration depicted in FIG. 1B cansafely withstand up to ten times (e.g., 10×) the power (via eitherelectric field strength or pulse duration) than a cell or embryo 120subject to an electric field using the configuration depicted in FIG.1A. This equates to an increased efficiency of reagent uptake as well asincreased survival rates of cells undergoing electroporation.

In later tests conducted with the configuration in FIG. 1B, electricfields greater than or equal to 300 V/cm for total durations greaterthan five times as long were safely applied to embryos. This led to moreefficiency in embryo gene-editing and thus a greater net number ofgenetically modified embryos. The tests were conducted for embryosapproximately 80 μm in diameter and each experiment was designed toknock out a unique gene via an exon-deletion (removal of 600 bp to 800bp of a gene) mediated by CRISPR Cas9.

FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe 200 with planarelectroporation electrodes situated on a substrate. As depicted in FIG.2A, a first electroporation electrode 102 and a second electroporationelectrode 104 are situated on substrate 106 and are planar with eachother. The substrate 106 has an electrically insulated surface thatprevents the first electroporation electrode 102 from electricallyshorting with the second electroporation electrode 104. Likewise, insome examples, the first electroporation electrode 102 and a secondelectroporation electrode 104 both have an electrically insulatedsurface that prevents the possibility that contact with a cell or embryo120 from electrically shorting first electroporation electrode 102 withthe second electroporation electrode 104. In some examples, one or bothof the first electroporation electrode 102 and a second electroporationelectrode 104 lack an electrically insulated surface.

The substrate 106 includes a fluidic vent 108 situated within theelectrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate106. The fluidic vent 108 separates the first electroporation electrode102 from the second electroporation electrode 104. The vent 108facilitates positioning of the cell or embryo as a liquid medium 130 canflow through the vent 108 so as to draw the cell or embryo 120 onto thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104. The vent 108 also facilitates suction to the cell orembryo 120 once positioned (e.g., in contact with the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104). It should be appreciated that the liquid medium 130 is capable offluidic transport of the cell or embryo 120 and the liquid medium 130 iscapable of supporting an electric field. As such, the liquid medium 130does not electrically short the first electroporation electrode 102 tothe second electroporation electrode 104.

In the configuration depicted in FIG. 2A, a voltage potential appliedacross the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 induces a strong electric field in thevent 108 that diminishes in the distance orthogonal to the plane of thesubstrate 106. More specifically, the intensity of the electric fielddiminishes in an orthogonal direction (e.g., positive z-direction) fromsubstrate 106 in proportion to the inverse square of the distance fromvent 108. As such, the electric field varies based on the position ofthe cell or embryo 120 and is non-uniform. This positional dependency ona non-uniform field is susceptible to small deviations of the positionof the cell or embryo 120 with respect to the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104. Thissusceptibility can result in large changes to the position andefficiency of pore formation and makes reliable permeabilizationdifficult. Consequently, the membrane permeabilization isnon-symmetrical and the reagent delivery is not as consistent as FIG. 1Aor FIG. 1B.

FIG. 2B illustrates an exemplary microelectrode probe 250 with a portionof the substrate situated between electroporation electrodes. Asdepicted in FIG. 2B, a first electroporation electrode 102 and a secondelectroporation electrode 104 are parallel to a surface of a substrate106. The first electroporation electrode 102 is situated a predetermineddistance from a substrate 106 in a first direction (e.g., positivez-direction) orthogonal to a surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106 and the second electroporation electrode 104 is situated apredetermined distance from a substrate 106 in a second direction (e.g.,negative z-direction) orthogonal to a surface (e.g., on the x-y plane)of the substrate 106. The second direction (e.g., negative z-direction)is opposite the first direction (e.g., positive z-direction).

A portion of the substrate 106 is interposed between the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104. The portion of the substrate 106 has an electrically insulatedsurface that prevents the first electroporation electrode 102 fromelectrically shorting with the substrate 106. The substrate 106 includesa fluidic vent 108 situated between the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that bisects theportion of the substrate 106 that is interposed between the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104.

The vent 108 facilitates positioning of the cell or embryo as a liquidmedium 130 can flow through the vent 108 so as to draw the cell orembryo 120 between the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104. The vent 108 also facilitatessuction to the cell or embryo 120 once positioned (e.g., in contact withthe portion of the substrate 106 that is interposed between the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104). It should be appreciated that the liquid medium 130 is capable offluidic transport of the cell or embryo 120 and the liquid medium 130 iscapable of supporting an electric field. As such, the liquid medium 130does not electrically short the first electroporation electrode 102 tothe second electroporation electrode 104.

In the configuration depicted in FIG. 2B, a voltage potential appliedacross the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 induces an electric field primarilyconfined to the vent 108. This is due to the difference in permittivityof the liquid medium 130 (e.g., ε_(liquid)) from the permittivity of thesubstrate 106 (e.g., ε_(substrate)). As such, the electric field isconcentrated along a choke point of the vent 108 where the cell orembryo 120 is suctioned in position. Consequently, the electric field isconcentrated by the proximity of electric field lines 110, isnon-uniform throughout the cell or embryo 120, and mainly affects theportion of the cell embryo 120 at the choke point. The positionaldependency on the non-uniform electric field is susceptible to smalldeviations of the position of the cell or embryo 120 with respect to thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104. This susceptibility can result in large changes to theposition and efficiency of pore formation and makes reliablepermeabilization difficult. Consequently, the membrane permeabilizationis non-symmetrical and the reagent delivery is not as consistent as FIG.1A or FIG. 1B.

FIG. 3A illustrates an ISO view of an exemplary microelectrode probecell 300 with microfluidic vents 108 situated on a substrate 106 betweenelectroporation electrodes (e.g., the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104). As depicted in FIG.3A, a first electroporation electrode 102 and a second electroporationelectrode 104 are situated on a substrate 106. In some examples, thesubstrate 106 has an electrically insulated surface that prevents thefirst electroporation electrode 102 from electrically shorting with thesecond electroporation electrode 104. In some examples, the substrate106 lacks an electrically insulated surface.

The first electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 both have a surface that is substantially orthogonal tothe electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106. The second electroporation electrode 104 is separated apredetermined distance from the first electroporation electrode 102 atsurfaces that are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 so as to form achannel 140. In some examples, the predetermined distance between thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 is larger than the diameter of cell or embryo 120. In someexamples, the predetermined distance between the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 is 50% to200% of the diameter of the cell or embryo.

A fluidic vent 108 extends into a sidewall 306 that is situated on thesurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106. The sidewall 306extends vertically in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction)orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 and is a part of the microfluidic pipes. Thevent 108 is smaller than the diameter of the cell or embryo 120 and issituated between the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104. The vent 108 facilitates positioning ofthe cell or embryo 120 within the channel 140. In some examples, thesubstrate 106 includes one or more fluidic vents 108 situated within asecond electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106 between the one or both surfaces (e.g., the first surfaceand the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 andthe second electroporation electrode 104 that are substantiallyorthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106. In such an instance, the secondelectrically insulated surface of the substrate is orthogonal to one orboth surfaces (e.g., the first surface and the second surface) of thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 that are substantially orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106.

A second substrate 308 with a second electrically insulated surface issituated above the channel 140. As depicted in FIG. 3A, the secondelectrically insulated surface is substantially parallel to the firstelectrically insulated surface (e.g., x-y plane). The second substrate308 is separated from the first electrically insulated surface a secondpredetermined distance, which facilitates to position the cell or embryowithin the channel 140 between the first electroporation electrode 102and the second electroporation electrode 104. In some examples, thesecond predetermined distance is 100% to 250% of the diameter of thecell or the embryo. In some examples, the second predetermined distanceis 50% to 200%, 50% to less than 100%, or even 10% to 50% of thediameter of the cell or the embryo. In some examples, the substrate 106is glass or silicon. In some instances, the glass is selected from thegroup consisting of Pyrex 7740, BK7 glass, Borofloat 33, Corning Eagleglass, D263, Gorilla glass, and soda-lime glass. In some examples, thesecond substrate 308 is fused silica quartz or single crystal quartz. Insome examples, the second substrate 308 is silicon-on-insulator (SOI).In some instances, the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) is selected from thegroup consisting of silicon nitride on silicon and silicon-oxide onsilicon. In some examples, the second substrate 308 is germanium orgermanium-on-insulator. In some examples, the second substrate 308 iszinc oxide. In some examples, the second substrate 308 is a polymer. Insome instances, the polymer is selected from the group consisting ofCast acrylic, ABS, nylon, polyethylene, cyclic olefin copolymer andpolymer, acetal, polycarbonate, PETG, polyimide, FEP, PTFE, Polystyrene,polypropylene, silicone, PVC, polyurethane, PMMA, and PDMS. Epoxy resinscan be UV curable such as SU-8, heat curable, or a dry film. In someexamples, the second substrate 308 is polydimethylsiloxane. In someexamples, the second substrate 308 is a low-temperature co-firedceramic. In some examples, the second substrate 308 is a positive ornegative photoresist. In some examples, sidewall 306 and secondsubstrate 308 can both be the same material or different materials. Theycan both be made up of the materials used in the first electricallyinsulated layer (the base substrate with electrodes) or any of thepolymers attached. The base layer, intermediary layer, and cover layercan all be the same material, each different, or any combination inbetween and still functionally act the same. The microfluidics used toposition cells between the electrodes are made up of three layers. Thebase is the electrically insulated surface and can be any mix of silicondioxide and other materials listed for substrate 106. The secondintermediary layer makes up the side walls of the channel. The materialcan be the same as those used for substrate 106 or any of the polymerslisted below. The final layer can also be made up of any material usedfor substrate 106 as well as any of the other polymers to house theelectrode arrays.

A liquid medium 130 is situated within the channel 140 and is capable ofsupporting an electric field. As such, the liquid medium 130 does notelectrically short the first electroporation electrode 102 to the secondelectroporation electrode 104. The liquid medium 130 can flow throughthe vent 108 (e.g., unobstructed) when a cell or embryo is not present.The liquid medium 130 can flow from the channel 140 into the vent 108 asbranches of microfluidic flow 332, as depicted in FIG. 3A. The branchesof microfluidic flow 332 of the liquid medium 130 are capable oftransporting the cell or embryo 120 into the channel 140.

In addition to the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104, the microelectrode probe can include afirst sensing electrode 302 and a second sensing electrode 304. Both thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 areadjacent to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane)of the substrate 106 and are situated adjacent to channel 140 or withinthe channel 140 to accommodate electrical contact between the firstsensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 and the cellor embryo 120. In some examples, cross sections of one or both of thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 arerectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, semi-circular, or semi-elliptical.In some examples, an edge length of one or both of the first sensingelectrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 is less than an edgelength of one or both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g.,first surface and the second surface) of the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extendsin a direction (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to theelectrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate106. In some examples, an edge length of one or both of the firstsensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 ranges from100 nm to 3.3 μm. In some examples, an edge length of one or both of thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 rangesfrom 100 nm to 40 μm. In some examples, the separation of the sensingelectrodes ranges from 1% to 50% of the diameter of the embryo or cell.

In some examples, one or both of the first sensing electrode 302 and thesecond sensing electrode 304 include a hydrophilic surface coating. Insome examples, the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensingelectrode is made from a material selected from the group consisting ofpolysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium, nichrome,silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold, silver, palladium,TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride, vanadium, permalloy (NiFe),graphene, indium tin oxide, tin, ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, rhodium,zirconium, TiNi, Al—Si—Cu, and cobalt. In some examples, one or both ofthe first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 aremade from a conductive alloy.

Signals provided to the first sensing electrode 302 and detected by thesecond sensing electrode 304 can indicate the status of themicroelectrode probe and/or provide characteristics of the cell orembryo. For example, signals provided and/or sensed at the first sensingelectrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 can be used todetermine whether the cell is present in the channel 140. Likewise, thesignals provided and/or sensed at the first sensing electrode 302 andthe second sensing electrode 304 can determine the relative size of thecell or embryo 120. Signals can be placed across the first and secondsensing electrodes and sensed at the first electrodes. Comparisonsbetween what is observed and what was applied provide difference fromwhich information can be extracted (i.e. attenuation of a signal, phaseshift, frequency change). This may be performed at the mainelectroporating electrodes.

In some examples, the signals provided and sensed at the first sensingelectrode 302 and/or the second sensing electrode 304 relate to thepermeability of the cellular membrane. In some examples, the signals maybe sensed at the electroporating electrodes. In some examples, thesignals provided and/or sensed at the first sensing electrode 302 andthe second sensing electrode 304 determine whether a liquid medium 130is present. In some examples, the signals provided and/or sensed at thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304determine the concentration of reagents in the liquid medium 130. Insome examples, the signals provided and/or sensed at the first sensingelectrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 determine the ionicstrength of the liquid medium 130. In some examples, the signalsprovided and/or sensed at the first sensing electrode 302 and the secondsensing electrode 304 determine the cell stage (e.g., mitosis). In someexamples, the signals provided and/or sensed at the first sensingelectrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 determine the celldifferentiation stage. In some examples, the signals provided and/orsensed at the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensingelectrode 304 are used to calculate the temperature of the liquid medium130. In some examples, the signals provided and/or sensed at the firstsensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 calculate thefluidic flow 330. In some examples, the signals provided and/or sensedat the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304determine apoptosis. In some examples, the signals provided and/orsensed at the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensingelectrode 304 determine necrosis. In some examples, the signals providedand/or sensed at the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensingelectrode 304 are used to calculate a volume change in a cell or embryo120. In some examples, the signals provided and/or sensed at the firstsensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 are used tocalculate the growth rate of a cell or embryo 120. In some examples, thesignals provided and/or sensed at the first sensing electrode 302 andthe second sensing electrode 304 are used to calculate the ion-activitywith the liquid medium 130.

It should be appreciated that a configuration of which sensing electrodeprovides a signal and which detects the signal can be reversed. Forexample, instead of signals being provided to the first sensingelectrode 302 and detected by the second sensing electrode 304, thesignals can be provide to the second sensing electrode 304 and detectedby the first sensing electrode 302.

As depicted in FIG. 3A, the first sensing electrode 302 and the secondsensing electrode 304 are provided adjacent to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106. Thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 aresituated adjacent to channel 140 or within the channel 140 and situatedso as to accommodate electrical contact between the first sensingelectrode 302, the second sensing electrode 304, and the cell or embryo120.

FIG. 3B illustrates an ISO view of an exemplary microelectrode cell 300with a cell or embryo 120 drawn to the microfluidic vents 108 andsituated on a substrate between electroporation electrodes (e.g., thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104). In this instance, the branches of microfluidic flow 332draw the cell or embryo 120 to the vent 108. Although not depicted, insome examples, a portion of the sidewall 306 at the vent 108 is angled.The angled surface at the vents 108 causes the cell or embryo 120 to bepositioned proximate the substrate 106 so as to contact the sensingelectrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and second sensingelectrode 304). In some examples, the entire the sidewall 306 is angled(e.g., non-orthogonal to the insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane)of the substrate 106).

A second substrate 308 with a second electrically insulated surface issituated above the channel 140. As depicted in FIG. 3B, the secondelectrically insulated surface is substantially parallel to the firstelectrically insulated surface (e.g., x-y plane). The second substrate308 is separated from the first electrically insulated surface a secondpredetermined distance, which facilitates to position the cell or embryowithin the channel 140 between the first electroporation electrode 102and the second electroporation electrode 104. In some examples, thesecond predetermined distance may be 100% to 250% of the diameter of thecell or the embryo. In some examples, the second predetermined distancemay be 50% to 200%, 50% to less than 100%, or even 10% to 50% of thediameter of the cell or the embryo. A liquid medium 130 is situatedwithin the channel 140 between the substrate 106 and the secondsubstrate 308. The liquid medium 130 is capable of supporting anelectric field and does not electrically short the first electroporationelectrode 102 to the second electroporation electrode 104.

The presence of the cell or embryo 120 obstructs the branches ofmicrofluidic flow 332 in the channel 140 through the vent 108. In someexamples, the branches of microfluidic flow 332 are reduced but continueto flow despite the presences of the cell or embryo 120, as depicted inFIG. 3B. In some instances, the cell or embryo 120 completely covers thevent 108 and the branches of microfluidic flow 332 are blocked.

In some examples, the vent 108 has an opening that is larger in a regionover the sensing electrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 andsecond sensing electrode 304) than in a region distal from the sensingelectrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and second sensingelectrode 304). In some instances, this larger opening to the vent 108facilitates positioning the cell or embryo 120 proximate the substrate106 so as to contact the sensing electrodes (e.g., first sensingelectrode 302 and second sensing electrode 304). In some examples, thevent 108 has an opening that is smaller in a region over the sensingelectrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and second sensingelectrode 304) than in a region distal from the sensing electrodes(e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and second sensing electrode 304). Insome instances, this smaller opening to the vent 108 facilitatespositioning the cell or embryo 120 proximate to the substrate 106 so asto contact the sensing electrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 andsecond sensing electrode 304). In some examples, the liquid medium 130that flows through the vents 108 positions the cell or embryo within thechannel 140 between the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 and onto the first sensingelectrode 302 and second sensing electrode 304.

In some examples, the edge length of one or both of the substantiallyorthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and the second surface) of thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction)orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 0.02% to 75.0% of the diameterof the cell or embryo. In some examples, the edge length of one or bothof the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 1 μm to 1 mm.In some examples, the edge length of one or both of the substantiallyorthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and the second surface) of thefirst electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction)orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 5 μm to 100 μm. In someexamples, an edge length of one or both of the substantially orthogonalsurfaces (e.g., first surface and the second surface) of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 that extends in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonalto the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106 ranges from 0.02% to 100.0% of the diameter of the cell orembryo 120.

The microelectrode configuration for single cell electroporation ispartly defined by the electrode height, electrode width, and electrodeseparation, which are each dependent on the diameter of the cell beingelectroporated. To target only a sub-portion of the cell the heightrange for microelectrode utilization is between 0.002% and 100% of thecell's diameter.

Electrode width is variable to the effectiveness of the microfluidic orisolation network utilizing the microelectrode configuration. Integratedinto a system with high isolation accuracy the range for ElectrodeWidths would be between 10% and 200% of the cell's diameter. Anythingless than the diameter of the cell is to further confine the surfacearea of the cell being porated in addition to the height limitations.With a low isolation accuracy, a wider set of electrodes could be usedwith a range between 200% and 1000% of the cell's diameter.

Electrode separation changes the surface area of the cell in direct andintimate contact with the electrodes. A high degree of contact would beuseful when attempting to maximize pore formation and membranedestabilization for greater reagent uptake however also would result inhigher cell death. This range is 10% to 50% of the cell's diameter. Amore intermediate range allows the cells to come in contact with oneelectrode or the other but not both at the same time given the curvatureof the cell membrane. This range is between 50% and 200% of the cell'sdiameter. A high viability but low effective range for the electrodeseparation is between 200% and 1000% of the cell's diameter which isuseful when attempting to work with sensitive cells such as those out ofcryo preservation or requiring less direct electroporation.

Table 3 below lists the parameters based on cell type and cell class,where the EP electrode height is 0.02% to 100% of the cell diameter, theEP electrode separation is 50% to 200% of the cell diameter, and the EPelectrode width is 10% to 200% of the cell diameter. The parametersmentioned above for the size ranges of the microelectrodes are all celldiameter dependent and can apply to alternate developed or engineeredlines and those not directly mentioned in the chart. Any rotation of theelectrodes effectively resulting in partial electroporation constitutesas partial membrane electroporation as described herein. Each of thethree dimensions can be changed independent to the other electrodes andso long as each dimension falls within an acceptable range, anycombination of the electrode dimensions constitute a microelectrode.

TABLE 3 Diameter Range Electrode Separation: Electrode Separation:(Lower High Cell Surface Area Low Cell Surface Area Bound-UpperElectrode Height Contact with Electrodes Contact with Electrodes CellType Bound) (.02%-100% Cell Diameter) (10%-50% cell diameter) (50%-200%cell diameter) Embryos Mammalian  60 μm-160 μm  100 nm-160 μm  6 μm-30μm 30 μm-320 μm Insect 0.18 mm-16.5 mm  100 nm-16.5 mm 18 μm-90 μm 0.09m-33 mm  Amphibian 1 mm-2 mm 100 nm-2 mm  100 μm-500 μm 0.5 mm-4 mm  Fish .7 mm-9 mm  100 nm-9 mm   70 μm-450 μm 0.45 mm-18 mm   Plants/FungiPlant Protoplasts 10 μm-40 μm 100 nm-40 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-80 μm Pollen 6 μm-120 μm  100 nm-120 μm .6 μm-3 μm   3 μm-240 μm Fungi Protoplast 2μm-5 μm 100 nm-5 μm  .2 μm-1 μm  1 μm-10 μm Yeast 3 μm-4 μm 100 nm-4 μm  .3 μm-1.5 μm 1.5 μm-8 μm   Mammalian Immune  5 μm-80 μm 100 nm-80 μm .5 μm-2.5 μm 2.5 μm-160 μm  Cell Lines Connective Tissue  2 μm-20 μm100 nm-20 μm .2 μm-1 μm  1 μm-40 μm Endothelial 10 μm-20 μm 100 nm-20 μm1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-40 μm Epithelial  10 μm-120 μm  100 nm-120 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-240 μm Muscle  10 μm-40 mm  200 nm-40 mm 1 μm-5 μm  5 μm-80 mmMesenchymal Stem 20 μm-30 μm 100 nm-30 μm  2 μm-10 μm 10 μm-60 μm Embryonic Stem 10 μm-15 μm 100 nm-15 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-30 μm IPSC 10μm-30 μm 100 nm-30 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-60 μm CHO 10 μm-15 μm 100 nm-15 μm1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-30 μm HeLA 10 μm-20 μm 100 nm-20 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-40 μmHEK293 10 μm-15 μm 100 nm-15 μm 1 μm-5 μm 5 μm-30 μm ElectrodeSeparation: Electrode Width: Electrode Width: No Cell Surface AreaPrecise Single Cell Poor Single Cell Contact with Electrodes IsolationIsolation Cell Type (200%-1000% cell diameter) (10%-200%) (10%-1000%)Embryos Mammalian 320 μm-160 mm  6 μm-320 μm  6 μm-160 mm Insect 33 mm-1m    18 μm-33 mm  18 μm-1 m    Amphibian 500 μm-1 m    100 μm-4 mm   100μm-1 m    Fish 18 mm-1 m    70 μm-18 mm  70 μm-1 m    Plants/Fungi PlantProtoplasts 80 μm-40 mm 1 μm-80 μm 1 μm-40 mm Pollen 240 μm-120 mm 0.6μm-240 μm  0.6 μm-120 mm  Fungi Protoplast 10 μm-5 mm  0.2 μm-10 μm  0.2μm-5 mm   Yeast 8 μm-4 mm 0.3 μm-8 μm   0.3 μm-4 mm   Mammalian Immune160 μm-80 mm  0.5 μm-160 μm  0.5 μm-80 mm  Cell Lines Connective Tissue40 μm-20 mm 0.2 μm-40 μm  0.2 μm-20 mm  Endothelial 40 μm-20 mm 1 μm-40μm 1 μm-20 mm Epithelial 240 μm-120 mm  1 μm-240 μm  1 μm-120 mm Muscle80 mm-40 mm  1 μm-80 μm 1 μm-40 mm Mesenchymal Stem 60 μm-30 mm 2 μm-60μm 2 μm-30 mm Embryonic Stem 30 μm-15 mm 1 μm-30 μm 1 μm-15 mm IPSC 60μm-30 mm 1 μm-60 μm 1 μm-30 mm CHO 30 μm-15 mm 1 μm-30 μm 1 μm-15 mmHeLA 40 μm-20 mm 1 μm-40 μm 1 μm-20 mm HEK293 30 μm-15 mm 1 μm-30 μm 1μm-15 mm

In some examples, the predetermined distance ranges from 0.75× thediameter of the cell to 1.5× the diameter of the cell or embryo 120. Insome examples, the predetermined distance ranges from 1× the diameter ofthe cell to 1.25× the diameter of the cell or embryo 120. For example,in some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian embryos and the edge length of one or bothof the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 100 nm to 120μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 80 μmto 200 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of insect embryo cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 0.18 mm to 3mm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 0.18mm to 3.75 mm. It should be appreciated that insect embryo cells areoblong and vary in size. Ranges for shorter lengths of insect embryocells range from 0.18 mm to 3.75 mm, whereas ranges for longer lengthsof the same insect embryo cells range from 0.5 mm to 20.63 mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of insect embryo cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 0.5 mm to 16.5mm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 0.5 mmto 20.63 mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of amphibian embryo cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 1 mm to 2 mm.In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 1 mm to2.5 mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of fish embryo cells and the edge length of one or bothof the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 0.7 mm to 9mm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 0.7 mmto 11.25 mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of plant protoplasts and the edge length of one or bothof the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 40μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μmto 50 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of pollen and the edge length of one or both of thesubstantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and the secondsurface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 6 μm to 120μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 6 μmto 150 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of fungi protoplasts and the edge length of one or bothof the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and thesecond surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 2 μm to 5 μm.In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 2 μm to6.5 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of yeast and the edge length of one or both of thesubstantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface and the secondsurface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 3 μm to 4 μm.In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 3 μm to 5μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian immune cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 5 μm to 80 μm.In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 5 μm to100 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian connective tissue cells and the edge lengthof one or both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 rangesfrom 2 μm to 20 μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distanceranges from 2 μm to 25 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian endothelial cells and the edge length ofone or both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 rangesfrom 10 μm to 20 μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distanceranges from 10 μm to 25 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian epithelial cells and the edge length of oneor both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surfaceand the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 andthe second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction(e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μmto 120 μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from10 μm to 150 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian muscle cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 100μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μmto 125 μm. It should be appreciated that mammalian muscle cells areoblong and vary in size. Ranges for shorter lengths of mammalian musclecells range from 10 μm to 125 μm, whereas ranges for longer lengths ofthe same mammalian muscle cells range from 1 mm to 125 mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian muscle cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 1 mm to 40 mm.In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 1 mm to 50mm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian mesenchymal stem cells and the edge lengthof one or both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 rangesfrom 20 μm to 30 μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distanceranges from 20 μm to 37.5 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian embryonic stem cells and the edge length ofone or both of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that extends in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electricallyinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 rangesfrom 10 μm to 15 μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distanceranges from 10 μm to 18.75 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian IPSC cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 30μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 20 μmto 37.5 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian CHO cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 15μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μmto 18.75 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian HeLA cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 20μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μmto 25 μm.

In some configurations, the microelectrode cell 300 is forelectroporation of mammalian HEK293 cells and the edge length of one orboth of the substantially orthogonal surfaces (e.g., first surface andthe second surface) of the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that extends in a direction (e.g.,positive z-direction) orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 ranges from 10 μm to 15μm. In such configuration, the predetermined distance ranges from 10 μmto 18.75 μm.

FIG. 4A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a microelectrode probecell 400. As depicted in FIG. 4A, a first electroporation electrode 102and a second electroporation electrode 104 are situated on a substrate106. The first electroporation electrode 102 and a secondelectroporation electrode 104 are electrically separated by thesubstrate 106 and the liquid medium 130. The substrate 106 has anelectrically insulated surface that prevents the first electroporationelectrode 102 from electrically shorting with the second electroporationelectrode 104. The liquid medium 130 is situated within the channel 140and within the microfluidic pipes 430. The liquid medium 130 is capableof supporting an electric field and does not electrically short thefirst electroporation electrode 102 to the second electroporationelectrode 104.

The first electroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporationelectrode 104 both have a surface (e.g., on the y-z plane) that issubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106. The second electroporationelectrode 104 is separated a predetermined distance from the firstelectroporation electrode 102 at surfaces (e.g., on the x-z plane) thatare substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106, which forms channel 140.The predetermined distance between the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 is larger than thediameter of cell or embryo 120.

A pulse generator 450 is electrically coupled to the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104, as depicted in FIG. 4A. The pulse generator 450 is configured togenerate a signal (e.g., inject a signal) so that the first electrodeand/or the second electrode induces a uniform electric field withsubstantially parallel electric field lines between the surfaces (e.g.,the first surface and the second surface) of the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that aresubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106. In some examples, the generatedpulse is a sinusoid waveform or a non-sinusoidal waveform. In someinstances, the non-sinusoidal waveform is a square waveform, atriangular waveform, or a saw-tooth waveform. In some examples, thegenerated pulse has a frequency between 1 Hz to 1 kHz. In some examples,the generated pulse has a frequency between 1 Hz to 5 kHz. In someexamples, the generated pulse has a duty cycle of 50%. In some examples,the generated pulse induces an electric field that ranges between 100V/cm to 4 kV/cm. In some examples, the generated pulse induces anelectric field that ranges between 10 V/cm to 5 kV/cm, accommodatingextremely safe delivery. In some examples, the sensing setup is alsoconnected in parallel to the pulse generator to the electroporatingelectrodes through a multiplexing circuit which allows for controlledselection of what is immediately affecting the electrodes via a computeror controller.

In some examples, the pulse generator 450 is a standalone pulsegenerator electrically coupled to the microcontroller/computer. In someinstances, the standalone pulse generator 450 uses a serial connector(e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port (RS-232 standard),Ethernet, FireWire, SPI, I2C, etc.) or a parallel connector (e.g.,parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP), and extended capabilityport (ECP), etc.) to electrically couple to themicrocontroller/computer. In some instances, the standalone pulsegenerator 450 uses a general purpose interface bus (GPIB) toelectrically couple to the microcontroller/computer. In some examples,the pulse generator 450 includes a bi-directional multiplexerelectrically coupled to the first electroporation electrode 102 and thesecond electroporation electrode 104 that is configured to fire a pulseto the first electroporation electrode 102 and/or the secondelectroporation electrode 104. In some instances, a monostablemultivibrator may be used as the module to create a square pulse.

A first sensing electrode 302 and a second sensing electrode 304 areelectrically separated by the substrate 106 and the liquid medium 130.Signals provided (e.g., injected) to the first sensing electrode 302 anddetected by the second sensing electrode 304 can indicate the status ofthe microelectrode probe and/or provide characteristics of the cell orembryo. A signal generator 440 is configured to provide such signals. Insome examples, the generated signal is a sinusoid waveform or anon-sinusoidal waveform. In some instances, the non-sinusoidal waveformis an exponential waveform, a square waveform, a triangular waveform, ora saw-tooth waveform. In some examples, the generated signal has afrequency between 1 Hz to 1 kHz. In some examples, the generated signalhas a duty cycle of 50%. The above may be applied to the electroporatingelectrodes and the signal may be extracted from either sensingelectrode. The frequency range may be extended significantly to a rangeof 1 Hz to 100 GHz; embryo sensing will be in the kHz to MHz range, sothat detailed-feature extraction will require large frequencies. In someexamples, chip sensors may aid in the identification of whether anelectrode is surrounded by air, liquid, or the residue of liquid afterit has left the chip. A 60 Hz sinusoidal signal (or other waveforms suchas triangular, exponential, and square) is applied to an electrode andits attenuation is measured at the same electrode. When a signalamplitude experiences an abrupt increase or decrease, the type ofsurrounding on-chip may be ascertained: For example, a drop of signal of37.5% within 4 ms indicates an air-to-liquid transition. For example, arise of signal of 30% within 4 ms indicates an liquid-to-residuetransition. Attenuation measurement via this method is used to ensureelectrical pulses are accurately delivered to the first and secondelectroporating electrodes. A pulse is first delivered to theelectrodes, the voltage is then measured, and stored. This stored valueis compared to a calculated one which corresponds to a perfect pulse. Ifthere is a difference the pulsing module is adjusted towards thecalculated value and the entire process loops until the two areidentical.

As depicted in FIG. 4A, the signal generator 440 is electrically coupledto the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304.In some examples, the signal generator 440 is a standalone signalgenerator electrically coupled to the microcontroller/computer. In someinstances, the standalone signal generator 440 uses a serial connector(e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port (RS-232 standard),Ethernet, FireWire, I2C, SPI) or a parallel connector (e.g., parallelport, enhanced parallel port (EPP), and extended capability port (ECP))to electrically couple to the microcontroller/computer. In someinstances, the standalone signal generator 440 uses a general purposeinterface bus (GPIB) to electrically couple to themicrocontroller/computer. In some examples, the signal generator 440includes a bi-directional multiplexer electrically coupled to the firstsensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304 that isconfigured to provide a signal to the first sensing electrode 302 and/orthe second sensing electrode 304. In some examples, the signal generator440 and the signal extractor may be two parallel circuits. In someexamples, the signal extractor may be connected to any of the fourelectrodes regardless of the signal generator or pulse generator setup.

A fluidic vent 108 extends into a sidewall 306 that is situated on thesurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106. The sidewall 306extends vertically in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction)orthogonal to the insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106 and is a part of the microfluidic pipes 430. The vent 108is smaller than the diameter of the cell or embryo 120 and is situatedbetween the first electroporation electrode 102 and the secondelectroporation electrode 104. The vent 108 is configured to positionthe cell or embryo 120 within the channel 140. In some examples, thevents 108 are straight and orthogonal to the substrate 106 (vent 108 ofFIG. 4A). In some instances, the vents 108 are rounded.

As shown in FIG. 4B, in some examples, the vent 108 may comprise aplurality of identical smaller vents 108C and 108D arranged in parallelor in any angled configuration.

Pressure differentials within the microfluidic pipes 430 cause fluidicflow 330 of the liquid medium 130 and transport of the cell or embryo120. The pressure differences may be created with a pump (e.g. a syringepump). The (liquid) current of the fluidic flow 330 can be greater thanthe (liquid) current of the branches of microfluidic flow 332 throughthe channel 140A of cell A and vents 108. As depicted in FIG. 4A,branches of the microfluidic flow 332 are directed into the channel 140and through the vent 108 and out of the channel 140. A pump 460 ishermetically coupled to the microfluidic pipes 430. In some examples,the pump 460 is configured to adjust fluidic flow 330 in response to aproportional, integral, derivative (PID) 416 algorithm controller thatis electrically coupled to the pump 460. The PID controller continuouslycalculates an error value as the difference between a desired setpointand a measured process variable and applies a correction based onproportional, integral, and derivative terms. In some examples, the PIDis integrated into a microcontroller/computer (e.g., pump controller 616FIG. 6 ). In some examples, a PID controller is not used, and instead,liquid air residue (LAR) and embryo sensing across the chip enable analgorithm to control fluid movement, embryo trapping, and embryorecovery. This algorithm, in addition to the monitoring of these states,takes advantage of known features in the chip's design.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a microelectrode probearray 500. The microelectrode probe cell 400 of FIG. 4A can bereproduced in cell A, cell B, etc. For example, a first electroporationelectrode 102A of cell A and a second electroporation electrode 104A ofcell A are electrically separated by the substrate 106 and the liquidmedium 130. In some examples, the substrate 106 has an electricallyinsulated surface. The first electroporation electrode 102A of cell Aand the second electroporation electrode 104A of cell A form polyhedralsurfaces that are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 and parallel toeach other.

The first electroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the secondelectroporation electrode 104A of cell A both have a surface that issubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106. The second electroporationelectrode 104A of cell A is separated a predetermined distance from thefirst electroporation electrode 102A of cell A at surfaces that aresubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106, which forms channel 140A of cell A.In some examples, the predetermined distance between the firstelectroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the second electroporationelectrode 104A of cell A is larger than the diameter of cell or embryo120. In some examples, the predetermined distance between the firstelectroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the second electroporationelectrode 104A of cell A is 50% to 200%, 50% to less than 100%, or even10% to 50% of the diameter of cell or embryo 120.

The liquid medium 130 is situated within the channel 140A of cell A andwithin the microfluidic pipes 430. The liquid medium 130 is capable ofsupporting an electric field and therefore does not electrically shortthe first electroporation electrode 102A of cell A to the secondelectroporation electrode 104A of cell A.

Although not depicted in FIG. 5 , a pulse generator 450 is electricallycoupled to the first electroporation electrode 102A of cell A and thesecond electroporation electrode 104A of cell A, as depicted in FIG. 4A.The pulse generator 450 can be a standalone pulse generator electricallycoupled to a microcontroller/computer. The electrical coupling betweenthe standalone pulse generator 450 and the microcontroller/computer canbe a serial connector (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port(RS-232 standard), Ethernet, FireWire, I2C, SPI, etc.) or a parallelconnector (e.g., parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP), andextended capability port (ECP), etc.) or a general purpose interface bus(GPIB). In some examples, the pulse generator 450 includes abi-directional multiplexer electrically coupled to the firstelectroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the second electroporationelectrode 104A of cell A that is configured to fire a pulse to the firstelectroporation electrode 102A of cell A and/or the secondelectroporation electrode 104A of cell A.

A first sensing electrode 302A of cell A and a second sensing electrode304A of cell A are also electrically separated by the substrate 106 andthe liquid medium 130. The first sensing electrode 302B of cell B andthe second sensing electrode 304B of cell B form polyhedral surfacesthat are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 and are parallel to eachother. Although not depicted in FIG. 5 , a signal generator 440 iselectrically coupled to the first sensing electrode 302A of cell A andthe second sensing electrode 304A of cell A, as depicted in FIG. 4A. Thesignal generator 440 can be a standalone signal generator electricallycoupled to a microcontroller/computer. The electrical coupling betweenthe standalone signal generator 440 and the microcontroller/computer canbe a serial connector (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port(RS-232 standard), Ethernet, FireWire, etc.) or a parallel connector(e.g., parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP), and extendedcapability port (ECP), I2C, SPI) or a general purpose interface bus(GPIB). In some examples, the signal generator 440 includes abi-directional multiplexer electrically coupled to the first sensingelectrode 302A of cell A and the second sensing electrode 304A of cell Athat is configured to provide a signal to the first sensing electrode302A of cell A and/or the second sensing electrode 304A of cell A.

Cell B is similar to and electrically isolated from cell A. Cell Bincludes a first electroporation electrode 102B of cell B and a secondelectroporation electrode 104B of cell B which are electricallyseparated by the substrate 106 and the liquid medium 130. The firstelectroporation electrode 102B of cell B and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B form polyhedral surfaces that are substantiallyorthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 and are not parallel to each other.

In some examples, the polyhedral surfaces are applicable to electrodeadjacent faces, namely the faces on the side facing the other electrode,namely are parallel to the cross-sectional area in the y-z plane in FIG.5 . In some examples, one or both of the polyhedral surfaces are curved.In some examples, one or both of the polyhedral surfaces aresemi-circular or semi-elliptical. In some examples, one or both of thepolyhedral surfaces are rectangular, triangular, or trapezoidal. In someexamples, one or both of the polyhedral surfaces form a polyhedronsituated on a cross-sectional end of the first electroporation electrode102B of cell B and/or the second electroporation electrode 104B of cellB. In some instances, the polyhedron situated on a cross-sectional endof the first electroporation electrode 102B of cell B and/or the secondelectroporation electrode 104B of cell B forms a triangular prism, aquadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, a septaheron, or anoctahedron. In some instances, the polyhedron situated on across-sectional end of the first electroporation electrode 102B of cellB and/or the second electroporation electrode 104B of cell B forms atriangular prism, a quadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, aseptaheron, or an octahedron The substrate 106 has an electricallyinsulated surface that prevents the first electroporation electrode 102Bof cell B from electrically shorting with the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B. The liquid medium 130 is situated within thechannel 140B of cell B and within the microfluidic pipes 430. The liquidmedium 130 is capable of supporting an electric field and therefore doesnot electrically short the first electroporation electrode 102B of cellB to the second electroporation electrode 104B of cell B.

The first electroporation electrode 102B of cell B and the secondelectroporation electrode 104B of cell B both have a surface that issubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106. The second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B is separated a predetermined distance from thefirst electroporation electrode 102B of cell B at surfaces that aresubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., onthe x-y plane) of the substrate 106, which forms channel 140B of cell B.In some examples, the predetermined distance between the firstelectroporation electrode 102B of cell B and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B is larger than the diameter of cell or embryo120. In some examples, the predetermined distance between the firstelectroporation electrode 104B of cell B and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B is 50% to 200% of the diameter of cell orembryo 120.

Although not depicted in FIG. 5 , a pulse generator 450 is electricallycoupled to the first electroporation electrode 102B of cell B and thesecond electroporation electrode 104B of cell B, as depicted in FIG. 4A.The pulse generator 450 can be a standalone pulse generator electricallycoupled to a microcontroller/computer. The electrical coupling betweenthe standalone pulse generator 450 and the microcontroller/computer canbe a serial connector (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port(RS-232 standard), Ethernet, FireWire, I2C, SPI) or a parallel connector(e.g., parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP), and extendedcapability port (ECP), etc.) or a general purpose interface bus (GPIB).In some examples, the pulse generator 450 includes a bi-directionalmultiplexer electrically coupled to the first electroporation electrode102B of cell B and the second electroporation electrode 104B of cell Bthat is configured to fire a pulse to the first electroporationelectrode 102B of cell B and/or the second electroporation electrode104B of cell B.

A first sensing electrode 302B of cell B and a second sensing electrode304B of cell B are also electrically separated by the substrate 106 andthe liquid medium 130. The first sensing electrode 302B of cell B andthe second sensing electrode 304B of cell B form polyhedral surfacesthat are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane or y-z plane) of the substrate 106 and are notparallel to each other. In some examples, one or both of the polyhedralsurfaces are curved. In some examples, one or both of the polyhedralsurfaces are semi-circular or semi-elliptical. In some examples, one orboth of the polyhedral surfaces are rectangular, triangular, ortrapezoidal. In some examples, one or both of the polyhedral surfacesform a polyhedron situated on a cross-sectional end of the first sensingelectrode 302B of cell B and/or the second sensing electrode 304B ofcell B. In some instances, the polyhedron situated on a cross-sectionalend of the first sensing electrode 302B of cell B and/or the secondsensing electrode 304B of cell B forms a triangular prism, aquadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, a septaheron, or anoctahedron. In some instances, the polyhedron situated on across-sectional end of the first sensing electrode 302B of cell B and/orthe second sensing electrode 304B of cell B forms a triangular prism, aquadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, a septaheron, or anoctahedron.

Although not depicted in FIG. 5 , a signal generator 440 is electricallycoupled to the first sensing electrode 302B of cell B and the secondsensing electrode 304B of cell B, as depicted in FIG. 4A. The signalgenerator 440 can be a standalone signal generator electrically coupledto a microcontroller/computer. The electrical coupling between thestandalone signal generator 440 and the microcontroller/computer can bea serial connector (e.g., universal serial bus (USB), serial port(RS-232 standard), Ethernet, FireWire, I2C, SPI, etc.) or a parallelconnector (e.g., parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP), andextended capability port (ECP), etc.) or a general purpose interface bus(GPIB). In some examples, the signal generator 440 includes abi-directional multiplexer electrically coupled to the first sensingelectrode 302B of cell B and the second sensing electrode 304B of cell Bthat is configured to provide a signal to the first sensing electrode302B of cell B and/or the second sensing electrode 304B of cell B.

It should be appreciated that in addition to cell A and cell B, themicroelectrode probe array 500 can include additional cells that aresimilar to cell A and/or cell B. For example, although not depicted, themicroelectrode probe array 500 can be expanded to include a cell Cand/or a cell D, and/or a cell E, etc. In some examples, microelectrodeprobe array 500 is configured for electroporation of multiple individualcells or embryos and includes two or more of the microelectrodes of themicroelectrode cells (e.g., microelectrode probe array 500). In such aninstance, at least two of the two or more of the microelectrode cellsare fluidly coupled (e.g., hermitically sealed) by a transport channel(e.g., microfluidic pipes 430). In some examples, microelectrode probearray 500 can be a microfluidic chip. That is, a microfluidic chip forelectroporation of multiple individual cells or embryos 120 includes twoor more of the microelectrode cells (e.g., microelectrode probe array500). In such an instance, at least two of the two or more of themicroelectrode cells are fluidly coupled (e.g., hermitically sealed) bya transport channel (e.g., microfluidic pipes 430).

As depicted in FIG. 5 , a fluidic vent 108A of cell A extends into asidewall 306A of cell A that is situated on the surface (e.g., on thex-y plane) of the substrate 106. The sidewall 306A of cell A extendsvertically in a direction (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to theinsulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 and is apart of the microfluidic pipes 430. The vent 108A of cell A is smallerthan the diameter of the cell or embryo 120 and is situated between thefirst electroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the secondelectroporation electrode 104A of cell A. In contrast to the vent 108depicted in FIG. 4A, the surface of vent 108A of cell A is angled (inthe x-y plane) with respect to the sidewall 306A and the surface of thevent 108A is orthogonal to the substrate 106. The angled surface at thevents 108 causes the cell or embryo 120 to position proximate to thesubstrate 106 so as to contact the sensing electrodes (e.g., firstsensing electrode 302A of cell A and second sensing electrode 304A ofcell A). In some examples, the entire the sidewall 306 is angled (e.g.,non-orthogonal to the insulated surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106). In some examples, the vents 108 are straight or rounded.In some examples, as shown in FIG. 4B, the vent 108 and the vent 108Amay comprise a plurality of identical smaller vents 108C and 108Darranged in parallel or any angled configuration.

Likewise, a fluidic vent 108B of cell B extends into a sidewall 306B ofcell B that is situated on the surface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of thesubstrate 106. The sidewall 306B of cell B extends vertically in adirection (e.g., positive z-direction) orthogonal to the insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 and is a part ofthe microfluidic pipes 430. The vent 108B of cell B is smaller than thediameter of the cell or embryo 120 and is situated between the firstelectroporation electrode 102B of cell B and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B. Like vent 108A of cell A, the surface of vent108B of cell B is angled (in the x-y plane) with respect to the sidewall306A and the surface of the vent 108B is orthogonal to the substrate106. The angled surface at the vents 108 causes the cell or embryo 120to position proximate to the substrate 106 so as to contact the sensingelectrodes (e.g., first sensing electrode 302B of cell B and secondsensing electrode 304B of cell B). In some examples, the entire thesidewall 306 is angled (e.g., non-orthogonal to the insulated surface(e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106). In some examples, thevents 108 are straight or rounded. In some examples, as shown in FIG.4B, the vent 108 and the vent 108B may comprise a plurality of identicalsmaller vents 108C and 108D arranged in parallel or any angledconfiguration.

Branches of microfluidic flow 332A within the channel 140A of cell A arecontinually constricted from one end of the channel 140A of cell A tothe other end of vent A of cell A. The constriction increases the(liquid) current of the liquid medium 130 in the vent A of cell A. Atthe same time the constant constriction reduces the turbulent flow,which lessens eddy currents forming in channel 140A of cell A. In someexamples, the decrease in eddy currents facilitates positioning the cellor embryo 120 on the first sensing electrode 302A of cell A and thesecond sensing electrode 304A of cell A.

In contrast, due to the polyhedral structure of the firstelectroporation electrode 102B of cell B and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B and/or the polyhedral structure of the firstsensing electrode 302B of cell B and the second sensing electrode 304Bof cell B, the channel 140B of cell B both narrows and widens. Thisnarrowing and widening of the channel 140B of cell B causes the currentof the branches of microfluidic flow 332B to increase (e.g., speed up)or decrease (e.g., slow down). This change in current in channel 140B ofcell B increases the turbulent flow, which increases eddy currentsforming in channel 140A of cell A. In some instances, the increase ineddy current facilitates positioning the cell or embryo 120 on the firstsensing electrode 302A of cell A and the second sensing electrode 304Aof cell A.

As depicted in FIG. 5 , a pump 460 is hermetically coupled to themicrofluidic pipes 430. The pump 460 is configured to adjust fluidicflow 330 in response to a PID 416 controller that is electricallycoupled to the pump 460. The microfluidic pipes 430 are expanded in thevicinity of the pump 460. A larger impeller can drive more of the liquidmedium 130 at a lower rotational velocity, which provides for a quieterpump. The fluidic flow 330 is adjusted in response to sensor data acrossthe chip which allows a controller or computer to calculate velocity byidentifying when liquid is at certain locations separated by knowndistances.

FIG. 6 is a conceptual data flow diagram illustrating the data flowbetween different hardware of an electroporation system 600. Theelectroporation system 600 can be an integrated system with one or morevarious hardware components packaged together (e.g., on-chip) or anon-integrated system with one or more various hardware independentcomponents or any combination thereof. For example, thecomputer-readable medium/memory 630 can be a separate and/or remotehardware component such as storage on a cloud server or memory (e.g.,computer-readable medium/memory 630) integrated withmicrocontroller/computer 610 (e.g., on-chip). As depicted in FIG. 6 ,the electroporation system 600 includes a microcontroller/computer 610,a microelectrode array 620, a computer-readable medium/memory 630, asignal generator 440, a sensing switch 640, a pulse generator 450, anelectroporation switch 650, a microfluidic pump 460, and a signalextractor 670.

The microcontroller/computer 610 includes one or more processors (e.g.,cores) that are integrated with modules (e.g., input/output peripherals)and memory (e.g., cache, RAM, etc.) and capable of executinginstructions of a program. The modules of the microcontroller/computer610 are programmable input/output peripherals that interface with one ormore modules of the microcontroller/computer 610 or with one or moreelectronic devices of the system (e.g., a signal generator 440, asensing switch 640, a pulse generator 450, an electroporation switch650, a microfluidic pump 460, etc.). As depicted in FIG. 6 , the modulesinclude a determinator 611, a sensing switch controller 612, a signalgenerator controller 613, an electroporation switch controller 614, apulse generator controller 615, and a pump controller 616. It should beappreciated that some these modules can be integrated as hardwareon-chip, while some of these modules can be implemented in software(e.g., firmware). It should be appreciated that the modules can includeI/O circuitry to interface with one or more hardware components. The I/Ocircuitry can include a serial connector (e.g., universal serial bus(USB), serial port (RS-232 standard), Ethernet, FireWire, I2C, SPI) or aparallel connector (e.g., parallel port, enhanced parallel port (EPP),and extended capability port (ECP), etc.).

The determinator 611 is an input/output peripheral of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with the computer-readablemedium/memory 630, the signal extractor 670, sensing switch controller612, the signal generator controller 613, the electroporation switchcontroller 614, the pulse generator controller 615, and the pumpcontroller 616. The determinator 611 determines various conditions inthe electroporation system 600. For example, in some instances thedeterminator 611 receives a conditioned signal response (from a signalextractor 670) of a cell or embryo and compares it to an exemplarysignal response of a cell or embryo stored in the memory (e.g.,computer-readable medium/memory 630) to determine whether a membrane ofa cell or embryo is permeable. (Block 712 of FIG. 7 .) It should beappreciated the determinator 611 is programmable and therefore can beconfigured to determine one or more aspects of various cells or embryos.In some instances, the determinator 611 is configured to determinewhether a characteristic of the conditioned signal response falls withina specific frequency range. In some instances, the determinator 611 isconfigured to determine whether a characteristic of the conditionedsignal response within a specific frequency range exceeds a threshold.Programmability to accommodate specific characteristics of an exemplarysignal response of a cell or embryo such as a voltage spike or a voltagelevel that exceeds a voltage threshold provides a more flexibility tocharacterize the permeability of various cells or embryos.

The sensing switch controller 612 is an input/output peripheral of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with the sensing switch640. The sensing switch controller 612 provides one or more controlparameters to the sensing switch 640 to designate a specific arrayposition with the microelectrode array. The control parameters can beprogrammable bits that encode a cell position in the array. For example,the sensing switch controller 612 can include a programmable 8-bitcontrol line encoded such that hexadecimal 00x (e.g., binary 00000000)electrically couples the signal generator 440 to the sensing electrodes622 at cell A, hexadecimal 01x (e.g., binary 00000001) electricallycouples the signal generator 440 to the sensing electrodes 622 at cellB, hexadecimal 1Ax (e.g., binary 00011010) electrically couples thesignal generator 440 to the sensing electrodes 622 at cell Z, etc. Insome examples, the sensing switch controller 612 includes one or moreoutput registers of the microcontroller/computer 610 electricallycoupled to control lines to signal sensing the switch 640 to route thesignal.

The signal generator controller 613 is an input/output peripheral of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with the signal generator440. The signal generator controller 613 provides one or more signalparameters for the signal generator 440 to generate a signal. The signalparameters can be frequency, wavelength, pulse duration, duty cycle,amplitude, wave type (e.g., sinusoidal, saw-tooth, triangular, square,etc.), and duration between signals. In some examples, the signalgenerator controller 613 includes one or more output registers of themicrocontroller/computer 610 to provide waveform parameters for thesignal generator 440 to generate a signal.

As depicted in FIG. 6 , the signal generator 440 is electrically coupledto the sensing electrodes 622 (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and thesecond sensing electrode 304) via the sensing switch 640. The signalgenerator 440 is configured to inject a signal at one or both of thefirst sensing electrode 302 and the second sensing electrode 304. Insome examples, it is possible for a signal to be addressed to theelectroporating electrodes.

The sensing switch 640 is a switch that receives input from the sensingswitch controller 612 to route a signal generated from the signalgenerator 440 to sensing electrodes 622 of the microelectrode array 620.In some examples, the sensing switch 640 is electrically coupled to thesensing electrodes 622 (e.g., first sensing electrode 302 and the secondsensing electrode 304). The sensing switch 640 is configured to suppressan electric field perturbation between the first sensing electrode 302and the second sensing electrode 304 in a first mode and provide anelectric field between the first sensing electrode 302 and the secondsensing electrode 304 in a second mode. In some instances, the sensingswitch 640 is configured to toggle between the first mode and the secondmode at predetermined periodicity. The predetermined periodicity canrange from 100 μs to 50 ms. In some examples, the sensing switch 640 isa bi-directional multiplexer coupled to the sensing switch controller612 and the signal generator 440 coupled to a microcontroller/computer.In some examples, the signal generator 440 and the sensing switch 640form a switching circuit. In some instances, the switching circuitincludes the signal generator 440 to form a mono-stable multi-vibrator.

The electroporation switch controller 614 is an input/output peripheralof the microcontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with theelectroporation switch 650. The electroporation switch controller 614provides one or more control parameters to the electroporation switch650 to designate a specific array position with the microelectrodearray. The control parameters can be programmable bits that encode acell position in the array. For example, the electroporation switchcontroller 614 can include a programmable 8-bit control line encodedsuch that hexadecimal 00x (e.g., binary 00000000) electrically couplesthe pulse generator 450 to the electroporation electrodes 624 at cell A,hexadecimal 01x (e.g., binary 00000001) electrically couples the pulsegenerator 450 to the electroporation electrodes 624 at cell B,hexadecimal 1Ax (e.g., binary 00011010) electrically couples the pulsegenerator 450 to the electroporation electrodes 624 at cell Z, etc. Insome examples, the electroporation switch controller 614 includes one ormore output registers of the microcontroller/computer 610 electricallycoupled to control lines to signal electroporation switch 650 to route apulse to the electroporation electrodes 624. In some examples, theelectroporation switch controller 614 is also simply a computer ormicrocontroller with a communication line to the pump.

The pulse generator controller 615 is an input/output peripheral of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with the pulse generator450. The pulse generator controller 615 provides one or more pulseparameters for the pulse generator 450 to generate a pulse. The pulseparameters can be frequency, wavelength, pulse duration, duty cycle,amplitude, wave type (e.g., sinusoidal, saw-tooth, triangular, square,etc.), duration between pulses, etc. In some examples, the pulsegenerator controller 615 includes one or more output registers of themicrocontroller/computer 610 to provide pulse parameters for the signalgenerator 440 to generate a pulse for the electroporation electrodes624.

As depicted in FIG. 6 , the pulse generator 450 is electrically coupledto the electroporation electrodes 624 (e.g., the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104) via theelectroporation switch 650. The pulse generator 450 is configured toinject a pulse at one or both of the first electroporation electrode 102and the second electroporation electrode 104.

The electroporation switch 650 is a switch that receives input from theelectroporation switch controller 614 to route a signal generated fromthe pulse generator 450 to the electroporation electrodes 624 of themicroelectrode array 620. In some examples, the electroporation switch650 is electrically coupled to the first electroporation electrode 102and the second electroporation electrode 104. The electroporation switch650 is configured to suppress an electric field between the surfaces(e.g., the first surface and the second surface) of the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104 that are substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulatedsurface (e.g., on the x-y plane) of the substrate 106 in a first modeand provide an electric field between the surfaces (e.g., the firstsurface and the second surface) of the first electroporation electrode102 and the second electroporation electrode 104 that are substantiallyorthogonal to the electrically insulated surface (e.g., on the x-yplane) of the substrate 106 in a second mode. In some instances, theelectroporation switch 650 is configured to toggle between the firstmode and the second mode at predetermined periodicity. In someinstances, the electroporation switch 650 is configured to togglebetween the first mode and the second mode at predetermined periodicity.The predetermined periodicity can range from 100 μs to 50 ms. In someexamples, the electroporation switch 650 is a bi-directional multiplexercoupled to the electroporation switch controller 614 and the pulsegenerator 450 coupled to a microcontroller/computer. In some examples,the pulse generator 450 and the electroporation switch 650 form aswitching circuit. In some instances, the switching circuit includes thepulse generator 450 to form a mono-stable multi-vibrator.

The pump controller 616 is an input/output peripheral of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that interfaces with the microfluidic pump460. The pump controller 616 provides one or more pump parameters forcontrolling the pump to adjust the flow of the fluid within themicroelectrode array 620. The pump parameters include flow rate, start,stop, overshoot, dampening, etc. In some examples, the pump controller616 is a proportional, integral, derivative (PID) algorithm controller.

As depicted in FIG. 6 , the microelectrode array 620 includes sensingelectrodes 622, electroporation electrodes 624, and microfluidic pipes430. The sensing electrodes 622 of the microelectrode array 620 areelectrically coupled to the sensing switch 640. The sensing electrodes622 refer to the first sensing electrode 302 and the second sensingelectrode 304, as depicted in FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 4 as well as to thefirst sensing electrode 302A of cell A and the second sensing electrode304B of cell B, depicted in FIG. 5 .

The electroporation electrodes 624 of the microelectrode array 620 areelectrically coupled to the electroporation switch 650. Theelectroporation electrodes 624 refer to the first electroporationelectrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode 104, as depictedin FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, and 4 as well as to the firstelectroporation electrode 102A of cell A and the second electroporationelectrode 104B of cell B, depicted in FIG. 5 .

The microfluidic pipes 430 of the microelectrode array 620 arehermetically coupled to the microfluidic pump 460. Various examples ofthe microfluidic pipes 430 are depicted in FIGS. 4 and 5 .

As depicted in FIG. 6 , the signal extractor 670 is electrically coupledto the sensing electrodes 622 and interfaces with the computer-readablemedium/memory 630 and/or the determinator 611 of themicrocontroller/computer 610. The signal extractor 670 is configured tocapture a signal response from the injected signal of the signalgenerator 440 at the first sensing electrode 302 depicted in FIGS. 3A,3B, and 4 . This configuration can be expanded to a particular cell(e.g., cell A, cell B., etc.) of the microelectrode array for a firstsensing electrode (302A, 302B), as depicted in FIG. 5 . In someexamples, the signal response at the second sensing electrode 304 (304A,304B) in relation to the injected signal at the first sensing electrode302 (302A, 302B) is proportional to the impedance of the cell or embryo120. It should be appreciated that the signal extractor 670 can beelectrically coupled to either the first sensing electrode 302 (302A,302B) or the second sensing electrode 304 (304A, 304B) as long as thesignal extractor 670 is interposed between an output of the signalgenerator 440 and only one of the sensing electrodes while the other thesensing electrode is shorted to ground, as depicted in FIG. 4A. That is,either the first sensing electrode 302 is electrically coupled to anoutput of the signal generator 440 and second sensing electrode 304 isshorted to ground or the second sensing electrode 304 is electricallycoupled to an output of the signal generator 440 and first sensingelectrode 302 is shorted to ground (e.g., FIG. 4A). In much the same waya sensing signal may be addressed to any electrode, the extractor mayalso pull information from any electrode.

The signal extractor 670 includes filter/amplifier 680 that can filterand/or amplify the signal response from the sensing electrodes 622 andprovide a conditioned signal to the computer-readable medium/memory 630and/or the determinator 611 of the microcontroller/computer 610. In someexamples, the filter/amplifier 680 includes one or more low-pass filtersconfigured to pass low frequency components of the response signal andattenuate high frequency components of the response signal. In someexamples, the filter/amplifier 680 includes one or more high-passfilters configured to pass high frequency components of the responsesignal and attenuate low frequency components of the response signal. Insome examples, the filter/amplifier 680 includes one or more band-passfilters or notch filters configured to pass a range of frequencycomponents of the response signal and attenuate different range offrequency components of the response signal.

In some examples, the signal extractor 670 is configured to convert ananalog response signal to a digital conditioned signal. For instance, insome examples the signal extractor 670 is an analog-to-digitalconverter. In some examples, the signal extractor 670 is configured as abalancing network such as a potentiostat or a galvanostat. In someinstances, signal extractor 670 is a differential impedance matchingnetwork. In some examples, signal extractor 670 is an AC coupled bridgenetwork. In some instances, signal extractor 670 is an auto-balancingbridge network.

FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary process 700 for electroporation using amicroelectrode probe in the microelectrode array 620. Process 700 can beperformed by a system with one or more microelectrode probes arranged inan array (e.g., cell A, cell B of FIG. 5 ). Each pair of electroporationelectrodes of a microelectrode probe in the array is electricallycoupled to one or more switches that electrically couples the sensingelectrodes 622 of a microelectrode probe to the signal generator 440 andelectrically couples the electroporation electrodes 624 of amicroelectrode probe to the pulse generator 450.

Referring to FIG. 6 , the sensing switch controller 612 and theelectroporation switch controller 614 of microcontroller/computer 610configures at least one microelectrode probe at an array position sothat the sensing electrodes 622 are electrically coupled to the signalgenerator 440 and the electroporation electrodes 624 are electricallycoupled to a pulse generator 450, as depicted at block 702. In someexamples, the sensing switch controller 612 and the electroporationswitch controller 614 of microcontroller/computer 610 simultaneouslytrigger sensing switch 640 and electroporation switch 650, respectively.In response to the trigger, the sensing switch controller 612 signalssensing switch 640 electrically to couple the sensing electrodes 622 ofa particular cell (e.g., cell A) to the signal generator 440. Inresponse to the trigger, the electroporation switch controller 614signals electroporation switch 650 to electrically couple theelectroporation electrodes 624 of the same particular cell (e.g., cellA) to the pulse generator 450.

In some examples, the sensing switch 640 includes a bi-directionalmultiplexer electrically coupled to sensing electrodes 622 and one orboth of the sensing switch controller 612 and the signal generatorcontroller 613 of the microcontroller/computer 610 that triggers thebi-directional multiplexer to fire a signal to the sensing electrodes622. In some examples, the sensing switch 640 is a switching circuit. Insome examples, the switching circuit is a mono-stable multi-vibratorthat includes the signal generator 440 with the sensing switch 640.

In some examples, the electroporation switch 650 includes abi-directional multiplexer electrically coupled to electroporationelectrodes 624 and one or both of the electroporation switch controller614 and the pulse generator controller 615 of themicrocontroller/computer 610 that trigger the bi-directional multiplexerto fire a pulse to the electroporation electrodes 624. In some examples,the electroporation switch 650 is a switching circuit. In some examples,the switching circuit is a mono-stable multi-vibrator that includes thepulse generator 450 with the electroporation switch 650.

Once the sensing switch 640 and the electroporation switch 650 areconfigured for a particular microelectrode probe at an array position,pulse generator controller 615 triggers pulse generator 450 to apply atest signal to the electroporation electrodes 624, as depicted at block704 of process 700. The pulse generator controller 615 triggers thepulse generator 450 to apply a test signal (e.g., voltage signal orcurrent signal) to the electroporation electrodes 624 of the particularcell (e.g., cell A) and induce an electric field between the firstelectroporation electrode 102 and the second electroporation electrode104. The test signal to the electroporation electrodes 624 can be agenerated voltage signal waveform or a generated electrical currentsignal waveform. The test signal to the electroporation electrodes 624can be a sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal waveform. In some examples, thetest signal includes pre-cursor or post-cursor FIR taps.

In some examples, the non-sinusoidal waveform of the test signal to theelectroporation electrodes 624 is a square waveform, a triangularwaveform, or a saw-tooth waveform. In some examples, the test signal tothe electroporation electrodes 624 has a frequency between 133 Hz to 1kHz. In some examples, the test signal to the electroporation electrodes624 has a frequency between 1 Hz to 100 kHz. In some examples, the testsignal to the electroporation electrodes 624 has a duty cycle of 50%. Insome examples, the test signal can induce an electric field between theelectroporation electrodes that ranges between 150 V/cm to 2 kV/cm. Insome examples, the test signal can induce an electric field between theelectroporation electrodes that ranges between 10 V/cm to 5 kV/cm.

While a test signal is applied to the electroporation electrodes 624 ofthe particular cell (e.g., cell A of FIG. 5 ), the signal generatorcontroller 613 triggers the signal generator 440 to transmit acharacterization signal to the sensing electrodes 622 of the particularcell (e.g., cell A of FIG. 5 ), which injects a current across the cellor embryo, as depicted at block 706. The characterization signal can bea sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal waveform. The characterization signal canbe a generated voltage signal waveform or a generated electrical currentsignal waveform. In some examples, the non-sinusoidal waveform of thecharacterization signal is a square waveform, a triangular waveform, ora saw-tooth waveform. In some examples, the characterization signal tothe sensing electrodes 622 has a frequency between 1 Hz to 1 MHz. Insome instances, the characterization signal is piece wise. For example,in some examples, the characterization signal to the sensing electrodes622 has a frequency between 1 Hz to 1 kHz and 50 kHz to 1 MHz. In someexamples, the characterization signal to the sensing electrodes 622 hasa frequency between 1 Hz to 1 kHz and 50 kHz to 100 GHz. In someexamples, the characterization signal to the sensing electrodes 622 hasa duty cycle of 50%.

At block 708 of process 700, the signal extractor 670 extracts thesignal response from the characterization signal injected to the sensorelectrodes. The signal response is the transference of electrical energyacross the cell or embryo. As such, the signal response provides one ormore electric characteristics of membrane permeability of the cell orembryo.

At optional block 710 of process 700, the filter/amplifier 680 of thesignal extractor conditions the extracted signal response. Thefilter/amplifier 680 boosts and/or filters the signal response from thesensing electrodes 622 prior to transmitting the conditioned signal tothe determinator 611 of the microcontroller/computer 610 or storing theconditioned signal to memory (e.g., computer-readable medium/memory). Insome examples, conditioning the signal includes amplifying the extractedsignal response. In such instances, the injected signal includes one ormore frequencies.

It should be appreciated that various filters can be used. For example,the filter/amplifier 680 can be a low pass filter configured to pass lowfrequency components of the response signal and attenuate high frequencycomponents of the response signal. In some examples, thefilter/amplifier 680 is a high pass filter configured to pass highfrequency components of the response signal and attenuate low frequencycomponents of the response signal. In some examples, thefilter/amplifier 680 is a band pass filter or a notch filter configuredto pass a range of frequency components of the response signal andattenuate different range of frequency components of the responsesignal.

At block 712 of process 700, the determinator 611 attempts to determinewhether the member of the cell or embryo is permeable. In process 700,the initial amplitude of the test signal is below a level that indicespermeability of the membrane of the cell or embryo 120. By comparing theconditioned signal response (from a signal extractor 670) of a cell orembryo 120 with an exemplary signal response of a cell or embryo 120stored in the memory (e.g., computer-readable medium/memory 630), thedeterminator 611 can determine whether a membrane of a cell or embryo120 is permeable. In some examples, the determinator 611 can determinewhether a membrane of a cell or embryo 120 is permeable based on whethera characteristic of the conditioned signal response within a specificfrequency range exceeds a threshold value (e.g., permeabilitythreshold).

In accordance with a determination that a membrane of a cell or embryois not permeable, the determinator 611 triggers the pulse generatorcontroller 615 to adjust the electrical levels of the test signalapplied to the electroporation electrodes 624, as depicted at block 714of the process 700. In turn, the process 700 re-applies a test signal atthe adjusted electrical levels to the electroporation electrodes, backat block 704. As depicted in FIG. 7 , process 700 continues toiteratively loop blocks 704 through 714, which adjusts the electricallevels (e.g., steps the voltage) of the test signal applied to theelectroporation electrodes 624 with each iteration until thedeterminator 611 determines that a membrane of a cell or embryo ispermeable (e.g., a permeability threshold is exceeded).

In accordance with a determination that a membrane of a cell or embryois permeable (e.g., a permeability threshold is exceeded), thedeterminator 611 stores the electrical parameters for the permeabilitythreshold in computer-readable medium/memory 630, as depicted atoptional block 716.

At block 718 of process 700, the pulse generator controller 615 triggerspulse generator 450 to apply a signal (e.g., voltage to induce anelectric field) to the electroporation electrodes 624 at thepermeability threshold. The generated electrical pulse or signal to theelectroporation electrodes 624 should reflect the test signal to theelectroporation electrodes 624. It should be appreciated that theduration of the applied signal to the electroporation electrodes 624 canvary. In some examples, the duration of the applied signal to theelectroporation electrodes 624 is 10 ms. In some examples, the durationof the applied signal to the electroporation electrodes 624 is in therange from 1 ms to 100 ms, particularly 1 ms, 2 ms, 5 ms, 12 ms, or 15ms. In some examples, the duration of the applied signal to theelectroporation electrodes 624 is 20 ms. In some examples, the signalincludes five pulses that are separated by 100 ms. In some examples, thesignal selected from a range of 1-10 pulses that are separated by 25-200ms. In some examples, the separation between pulses range from 10 ms to60 s.

While the signal is applied to the electroporation electrodes 624 of theparticular cell (e.g., cell A), the signal generator controller 613triggers the signal generator 440 to transmit the signal (e.g., voltagesignal or current signal) to the sensing electrodes 622 of theparticular cell (e.g., cell A), which injects a current across the cellor embryo at the permeability threshold, as depicted at block 720. Thegenerated electrical pulse or signal to the sensing electrodes 622should reflect the characterization signal to the sensing electrodes622.

At block 722 of process 700, the signal extractor 670 extracts thesignal response from the signal injected to the sensor electrodes. Thesignal extractor 670 used for the signal at the permeability thresholdshould reflect the signal extractor 670 used for the characterizationsignal.

At optional block 724 of process 700, the filter/amplifier 680 of thesignal extractor 670 conditions the extracted signal response. In someexamples, conditioning the signal includes amplifying the extractedsignal response. In such instances, the injected signal includes one ormore frequencies. In general, the filter/amplifier 680 of the signalextractor 670 used for the signal response at the permeability thresholdshould reflect the filter/amplifier 680 of the signal extractor 670 usedfor the characterization signal.

At block 726 of process 700, the signal extractor 670 stores theconditioned signal response and/or the signal at the permeabilitythreshold to memory (e.g., computer-readable medium/memory).

At optional block 728 of process 700, the signal determinator 611determines whether the sample set is complete. In accordance with adetermination that the sample set is not complete, process 700 loopsback to block 718 to re-apply the signal at permeability threshold atthe same microelectrode probe (e.g., same cell in the array). Inaccordance with a determination that the sample set is complete, process700 can optionally change cells in the array and loop back to block 702and reconfigure a new microelectrode probe at a new array position(e.g., different cell in the array).

It is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of blocks in theprocesses/flowcharts disclosed is an illustration of exemplaryapproaches. Based upon design preferences, it is understood that thespecific order or hierarchy of blocks in the processes/flowcharts can berearranged. Further, some blocks can be combined or omitted. Theaccompanying method claims present elements of the various blocks in asample order, and are not meant to be limited to the specific order orhierarchy presented. Any processes or algorithms presented are merelyexemplary and are not intended to limit the scope of disclosure; oneskilled in the art may find alternative processes or algorithms thataccomplish the same tasks as described herein.

The previous description is provided to enable any person skilled in theart to practice the various examples described herein. Variousmodifications to these examples will be readily apparent to thoseskilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein can beapplied to other examples. Thus, the claims are not intended to belimited to the examples shown herein, but are to be accorded the fullscope consistent with the language of the claims, wherein reference toan element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one”unless specifically so stated, but rather “one or more.” The word“exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example, instance, orillustration.” Any example described herein as “exemplary” is notnecessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over otherexamples. Unless specifically stated otherwise, the term “some” refersto one or more. Combinations such as “at least one of A, B, or C,” “oneor more of A, B, or C,” “at least one of A, B, and C,” “one or more ofA, B, and C,” and “A, B, C, or any combination thereof” include anycombination of A, B, and/or C, and can include multiples of A, multiplesof B, or multiples of C. Specifically, combinations such as “at leastone of A, B, or C,” “one or more of A, B, or C,” “at least one of A, B,and C,” “one or more of A, B, and C,” and “A, B, C, or any combinationthereof” can be A only, B only, C only, A and B, A and C, B and C, or Aand B and C, where any such combinations can contain one or more memberor members of A, B, or C. All structural and functional equivalents tothe elements of the various examples described throughout thisdisclosure that are known or later come to be known to those of ordinaryskill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and areintended to be encompassed by the claims. Moreover, nothing disclosedherein is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whethersuch disclosure is explicitly recited in the claims. The words “module,”“mechanism,” “element,” “device,” and the like cannot be a substitutefor the word “means.” As such, no claim element is to be construed under35 U.S.C § 112(f) unless the element is expressly recited using thephrase “means for.”

What is claimed is:
 1. A microelectrode for electroporating anindividual cell or embryo, the microelectrode comprising: a substratewith an electrically insulated surface; a first electrode adjacent tothe electrically insulated surface of the substrate, wherein the firstelectrode includes a first surface with an edge length that is less thanor equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo, the first surface beingsubstantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface of thesubstrate; a second electrode adjacent to the electrically insulatedsurface of the substrate and separated from the first electrode apredetermined distance so as to form a channel, wherein the secondelectrode includes a second surface with an edge length that is lessthan or equal to a diameter of the cell or embryo, the second surfacebeing substantially orthogonal to the electrically insulated surface ofthe substrate; and a liquid medium situated within the channel, whereinthe liquid medium is capable of fluidic transport of the cell or embryothrough or into the channel and capable of supporting an electric field.2. The microelectrode of claim 1, wherein the first surface and thesecond surface are not parallel.
 3. The microelectrode of claim 1 orclaim 2, wherein one or both of the first surface and the second surfaceare curved.
 4. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-3, wherein oneor both of the first surface and the second surface are semi-circular orsemi-elliptical.
 5. The microelectrode of claim 1 or claim 2, whereinone or both of the first surface and the second surface are rectangular,triangular, or trapezoidal.
 6. The microelectrode of claim 1 or claim 2,wherein the first electrode includes a third surface adjacent to firstsurface and the electrically insulated surface of the substrate, andwherein the second electrode includes a fourth surface adjacent to firstsurface.
 7. The microelectrode of claim 6, wherein the first surface andthe third surface form a polyhedron situated on a cross-sectional end ofthe first electrode.
 8. The microelectrode of claim 6 or claim 7,wherein the second surface and the fourth surface form a polyhedronsituated on a cross-sectional end of the second electrode.
 9. Themicroelectrode of claim 7, wherein the polyhedron formed on thecross-sectional end of the first electrode forms a triangular prism, aquadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, a septaheron, or anoctahedron.
 10. The microelectrode of claim 7 or claim 9, wherein thepolyhedron formed on the cross-sectional end of the second electrodeforms a triangular prism, a quadrahedron, a pentahedron, a hexahedron, aseptaheron, or an octahedron.
 11. The microelectrode of claim 1, whereinthe second surface area is substantially parallel to the first surface.12. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the edgelength of one or both of the first surface and the second surface rangesfrom 0.02% to 75.0% of the diameter of the cell or embryo.
 13. Themicroelectrode of any one of claims 1-12, wherein one or both of thefirst surface and the second surface are rectangular, triangular,trapezoidal, semi-circular, or semi-elliptical.
 14. The microelectrodeof any one of claims 1-13, wherein one or both of the first electrodeand the second electrode are deposited on the electrically insulatedsurface using techniques selected from the group consisting of physicalvapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, electroplating, and/or wetetching.
 15. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-14, wherein oneor both of the first electrode and the second electrode include ahydrophilic surface coating.
 16. The microelectrode of any one of claims1-15, wherein one or both of the first electrode and the secondelectrode are made from a material selected from the group consisting ofpolysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium, nichrome,silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold, silver, palladium,TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride, vanadium, permalloy, graphene,indium tin oxide, tin, ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, rhodium, zirconium,TiNi, Al—Si—Cu, and cobalt.
 17. The microelectrode of any one of claims1-16, wherein one or both of the first electrode and the secondelectrode are made from a conductive alloy.
 18. The microelectrode ofany one of claims 1-17, wherein the channel is configured to isolate thecell or embryo between the first surface and the second surface.
 19. Themicroelectrode of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the substrate includesone or more fluidic vents situated within the electrically insulatedsurface of the substrate between the first surface and the secondsurface.
 20. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-18, wherein thesubstrate includes one or more fluidic vents situated within a secondelectrically insulated surface of the substrate between the firstsurface and the second surface, wherein the second electricallyinsulated surface of the substrate is orthogonal to both theelectrically insulated surface of the substrate and the first surface.21. The microelectrode of claim 19 or claim 20, wherein the one or morefluidic vents are smaller than the diameter of the cell or embryo. 22.The microelectrode of any one of claims 19-21, wherein the liquid mediumflows through the one or more vents and positions the cell or embryowithin the channel between the first electrode and the second electrode.23. The microelectrode of any one of claims 1-22, further comprising asecond substrate with a second electrically insulated surface situatedabove the channel, wherein the second electrically insulated surface issubstantially parallel to the first electrically insulated surface andis separated from the first electrically insulated surface a secondpredetermined distance that is 100% to 250%, 50% to 200%, 50% to lessthan 100%, or 10% to 50% of the diameter of the cell or the embryo toposition the cell or embryo within the channel between the firstelectrode and the second electrode.
 24. The microelectrode of any one ofclaims 1-22, further comprising: a third electrode adjacent to theelectrically insulated surface of the substrate; and a fourth electrodeadjacent to the electrically insulated surface of the substrate, whereinthe third electrode and the fourth electrode are situated adjacent tothe channel or within the channel to accommodate electrical contactbetween the third electrode and the fourth electrode and the cell orembryo.
 25. The microelectrode of claim 24, wherein cross-sections ofone or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode arerectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, semi-circular, or semi-elliptical.26. The microelectrode of claim 24 or claim 25, wherein an edge lengthof one or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode is lessthan the edge length of the first surface or the second surface.
 27. Themicroelectrode of any one of claims 24-26, wherein an edge length of oneor both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode ranges from 100nm to 3.3 μm.
 28. The microelectrode of any one of claims 24-27, whereinone or both of the third electrode and the fourth electrode include ahydrophilic surface coating.
 29. The microelectrode of any one of claims24-28, wherein one or both of the third electrode and the fourthelectrode are made from a material selected from the group consisting ofpolysilicon, aluminum, nickel, tungsten, copper, titanium, nichrome,silicon chrome, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, gold, silver, palladium,TiW, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride, vanadium, permalloy (NiFe),graphene, indium tin oxide, tin, ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, rhodium,zirconium, TiNi, Al—Si—Cu, and cobalt.
 30. The microelectrode of any oneof claims 24-29, wherein one or both of the third electrode and thefourth electrode are made from a conductive alloy.
 31. Themicroelectrode of any one of claims 1-27, wherein the liquid mediumincludes a polynucleotide with a concentration ranging between 1 ng/μLto 10 mg/μL or between 1 ng/μL to 10 μg/μL.
 32. The microelectrode ofclaim 31, wherein the polynucleotide is a polyribonucleotide.
 33. Themicroelectrode of claim 32, wherein the polyribonucleotide is in acomplex with a polypeptide.
 34. The microelectrode of claim 32, whereinthe polyribonucleotide is in a polypeptide.
 35. The microelectrode ofany one of claims 1-31, wherein the substrate is glass (optionally,Pyrex 7740, BK7 glass, Borofloat 33, Corning Eagle glass, D263, Gorillaglass, and soda-lime glass), silicon, fused silica quartz or singlecrystal quartz, silicon-on-insulator (optionally, selected from thegroup consisting of silicon nitride on silicon and silicon-oxide onsilicon), germanium, germanium-on-insulator, zinc oxide, a polymer(optionally, selected from the group consisting of Cast acrylic, ABS,nylon, polyethylene, cyclic olefin copolymer and polymer, acetal,polycarbonate, PETG, polyimide, FEP, PTFE, Polystyrene, polypropylene,silicone, PVC, polyurethane, PMMA, and PDMS), polydimethylsiloxane,low-temperature co-fired ceramic, or positive or negative photoresist.36. A microfluidic chip for electroporation of multiple individual cellsor embryos, comprising two or more of the microelectrodes of any one ofclaims 1-35, wherein at least two of the two or more of themicroelectrodes are fluidly coupled by a transport channel.
 37. Amicrofluidic array for electroporation of multiple individual cells orembryos, comprising two or more of the microelectrodes of any one ofclaims 1-35.
 38. An electroporation system comprising: a microelectrodeof any one of claims 1-35; and a first signal generator electricallycoupled to the first electrode and the second electrode, wherein thefirst signal generator is configured to generate a signal between thefirst electrode and the second electrode that induces a uniform electricfield with substantially parallel electric field lines between the firstsurface and the second surface, and wherein a sensing signal is receivedby either the first electrode or the second electrode.
 39. Theelectroporation system of claim 38, wherein the generated signal is asinusoid waveform or a non-sinusoidal waveform, optionally, anexponential waveform, a square waveform, a triangular waveform, or asaw-tooth waveform.
 40. The system of any one of claims 38-39, whereinthe generated signal has a frequency between 1 Hz to 100 GHz or between1 Hz to 1 kHz 100 GHz.
 41. The system of any one of claims 38-40,wherein the generated signal has a duty cycle of 50%.
 42. Theelectroporation system of any one of claims 38-40, wherein the inducedelectric field ranges between 10 V/cm to 5 kV/cm or between 100 V/cm to4 kV/cm.
 43. The electroporation system of any one of claims 38-42,further comprising: a switch electrically coupled to the first electrodeand the second electrode, wherein the switch is configured to suppressan electric field between the first surface and the second surface in afirst mode and provide an electric field between the first surface andthe second surface in a second mode.
 44. The electroporation system ofclaim 43, wherein the switch is configured to toggle between the firstmode and the second mode at predetermined periodicity.
 45. Theelectroporation system of claim 44, wherein the predeterminedperiodicity ranges from 100 μs to 50 ms.
 46. The electroporation systemof claim 43, wherein the switch includes a bi-directional multiplexercoupled to a microcontroller or a computer.
 47. The electroporationsystem of claim 43, wherein the switch is a switching circuit.
 48. Theelectroporation system of claim 47, wherein the switching circuitincludes the first signal generator to form a mono-stablemulti-vibrator.
 49. The electroporation system any one of claims 38-45,further comprising: a second signal generator electrically coupled tothe third electrode and the fourth electrode, wherein the second signalgenerator is configured to inject a signal at any of the first, second,third, or fourth electrodes.
 50. The electroporation system of claim 49,further comprising: a signal extractor electrically coupled to thefourth electrode, wherein the signal extractor is configured to capturea signal response from the injected signal at any of the first, second,third, or fourth electrodes.
 51. The electroporation system of claim 50,wherein the signal response at the fourth electrode in relation to theinjected signal at any of the first, second, third, or fourth electrodesis proportional to the impedance of the cell or embryo.
 52. Theelectroporation system of claim 50, wherein the signal extractor is ananalog-to-digital converter, a potentiostat, a galvanostat, adifferential impedance matching network, an AC coupled bridge network,or an auto-balancing bridge network.
 53. A method, comprising:configuring the microelectrode of any one of claims 1-134; determining apermeability threshold, wherein the permeability threshold correspondsto a minimum amount of electrical energy applied to the cell or embryoat which cell membrane permeability is detected; applying a signalbetween the first electrode and the second electrode at the permeabilitythreshold; injecting, at a third electrode, a signal, extracting, at afourth electrode, a response to the injected signal, wherein the cell orembryo is electrically coupled between the third electrode and thefourth electrode; and storing the signal response in a non-transitorycomputer readable-medium.
 54. The method of claim 53, further comprises:conditioning the extracted signal response.
 55. The method of claim 54,wherein the conditioning includes one or more low pass filters.
 56. Themethod of claim 54 or claim 55, wherein the conditioning includesamplifying the extracted signal response.
 57. The method of any one ofclaims 53-56, wherein the injected signal includes one or morefrequencies.
 58. The method of any one of claims 53-57, whereindetermining the permeability threshold comprises: applying a first testsignal between the first electrode and the second electrode at apredetermined electrical energy level; injecting, at the thirdelectrode, a second test signal while the first test signal is beingapplied; extracting, at the fourth electrode, a response to the secondtest signal; determining whether the response to the second test signalis characteristic of membrane permeability of the cell or embryo; and inaccordance with a determination that the response to the second testsignal is characteristic of membrane permeability of the cell or embryo,storing electrical parameters associated with the predeterminedelectrical energy level.
 59. The method of claim 58 further comprises:conditioning the extracted second test signal response.
 60. The methodof claim 59, wherein the conditioning includes one or more low passfilters.
 61. The method of claim 58 or claim 59, wherein theconditioning includes amplifying the extracted signal response.
 62. Themethod of any one of claims 58-61, wherein determining the permeabilitythreshold further comprises: in accordance with a determination that theresponse to the second test signal is uncharacteristic of membranepermeability of the cell or embryo: iteratively adjusting thepredetermined electrical energy level of the signal between the firstelectrode and the second electrode until a determination that theresponse to the second test signal is characteristic of membranepermeability of the cell or embryo; and storing electrical parametersassociated with the adjusted predetermined electrical energy level.